Japanese History Digest

Nara period

Nara period

The Nara period refers to the 84-year period from 710, when Emperor Genmei moved the capital to Heijo-kyo, to 794, when Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Heian-kyo.

 

The era of Fujiwara no Fuhito

Fujiwara no Fuhito was the second son of Nakatomi no Kamatari and the figure who established the political foundations of the Fujiwara clan. Since the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō, efforts had been made to develop the ritsuryō system, but Fuhito played the central role in bringing it to practical completion. When Prince Kusakabe died prematurely in 689, Fuhito gained the trust of Empress Jitō and rose to prominence as a supporter of Prince Karu (later Emperor Monmu), the son of Prince Kusakabe. In 701, Fuhito took the lead in completing the compilation of the Taihō Code, thereby establishing the legal foundation of the ritsuryō state. Through this code, administrative structures at both the central and provincial levels, a taxation system based on so, yō, and chō, and the handenshūju system of land allotment based on household registers were formally institutionalized.

In 710, the capital was transferred to Heijō-kyō, modeled after Chang’an, the capital of Tang China, marking the beginning of the Nara period. Heijō-kyō was the first Japanese capital in which the grid-based urban planning system (jōbō-sei) was fully realized, and it flourished as the political and cultural center for the next seventy-four years. Alongside the establishment of the ritsuryō system, Fuhito also devoted himself to placing members of his own family at the core of the government, laying the groundwork for the later prosperity of the Fujiwara clan. In 718, Fuhito advanced the compilation of the Yōrō Code, revising the Taihō Code, but it was completed after his death and was not put into effect until 757. Fuhito’s death in 720 came at a time when the institutions of the ritsuryō state had reached a stage of completion, and it also marked the opening of an era characterized by a political power structure centered on the Fujiwara clan.

 

The Era of Prince Nagaya (Grandson of Emperor Tenmu)

After the death of Fujiwara no Fuhito, the leading figure at the imperial court was Prince Nagaya, a grandson of Emperor Tenmu. Although a member of the imperial family, Prince Nagaya was well versed in the ritsuryō codes and was known as a highly learned statesman. During his period in power, the ritsuryō system was becoming established, but a number of social problems also became increasingly apparent, including the flight and vagrancy of peasants, imbalances in the tax burden, and shortages of arable land. In an effort to overcome these difficulties, the court issued the “Edict for the Cultivation of One Million Chō of Land” in 722, encouraging land reclamation on a nationwide scale. In the following year, 723, it promulgated the “Law of Three Generations and One Lifetime,” which sought to stimulate farmers’ motivation by permitting private ownership of reclaimed land for a fixed period.

However, on the political front, conflicts with the four sons of Fujiwara no Fuhito—Muchimaro, Fusasaki, Umakai, and Maro—intensified. Political rivalry deepened over issues such as the elevation of Kōmyōshi to empress and disputes surrounding the imperial succession. In 729, Prince Nagaya was accused of plotting rebellion by the core leadership of the government, dominated by the Fujiwara clan, and was forced to commit suicide. This incident, known as the “Nagaya no Ōe Incident,” became a turning point that brought about a major shift in the structure of political power, from a system centered on members of the imperial family to one dominated by the Fujiwara clan.

 

The Era of the Four Fujiwara Houses

In 724, Kōmyōshi became empress—the first woman of non-imperial lineage to do so—and against this backdrop the status of the Fujiwara clan was gradually strengthened. With the Nagaya no Ōe Incident of 729, the political system centered on members of the imperial family suffered a major setback, and the power of the Fujiwara clan became decisive. The four sons of Fujiwara no Fuhito—Muchimaro (Southern House), Fusasaki (Northern House), Umakai (Shikike), and Maro (Kyōke)—came to occupy broad control of the core of the government, with several of them appointed simultaneously to the Council of State and other high offices. During this period, governance based on the ritsuryō system advanced further: provincial governors (kokushi) were dispatched to the provinces, and control through household registers and the land allotment system gradually became firmly established.

However, from around 735, smallpox spread nationwide, and in 737 the four Fujiwara brothers were successively infected and died. This epidemic drastically reduced the population and had a severe impact on tax collection and administrative operations. As the Fujiwara clan temporarily declined, a political vacuum emerged, and it was in this context that Tachibana no Moroe rose to prominence to fill it.

 

The Era of Tachibana no Moroe

Tachibana no Moroe was a noble of imperial descent who had been transferred to subject status, and he assumed responsibility for the government with the trust of Emperor Shōmu. He appointed learned monks and scholars such as Genbō and Kibi no Makibi, who had returned from Tang China, and actively introduced Tang Chinese institutions and culture in order to enhance the administration of the ritsuryō state and enrich court culture. As a result, the central administrative apparatus was further developed, and an international and splendid court culture influenced by Chinese civilization took shape.

However, in 740, Fujiwara no Hirotsugu, the son of Fujiwara no Umakai, launched a rebellion at Dazaifu (the Rebellion of Fujiwara no Hirotsugu). This uprising is said to have been driven by dissatisfaction with a government that favored figures such as Genbō and Kibi no Makibi, as well as by opposition from local officialdom. Although the revolt was suppressed by Ōno no Azumabito, it exposed the instability of the state. Moreover, as smallpox epidemics and famine continued, Emperor Shōmu increasingly came to believe that social stability could be achieved through the power of Buddhism. In 741, he ordered the establishment of provincial temples (kokubunji) and convents (kokubunniji), and in 743 he vowed to construct the Great Buddha of Tōdai-ji. In the same year, replacing the Law of Three Generations and One Lifetime, he promulgated the “Perpetual Private Ownership Law for Reclaimed Land,” which permitted the expansion of private landholdings. As a result, private land management that would later develop into the shōen estate system began to spread.

 

The Age of Fujiwara no Nakamaro

After Emperor Shōmu abdicated, Empress Kōken (the biological daughter of Empress Kōmyō) ascended the throne in 749 (the first year of Tenpyō Shōhō). At this time, Fujiwara no Nakamaro, the son of Fujiwara no Umakai of the Shikike branch of the Fujiwara clan, rose rapidly to prominence. As a capable administrator, Nakamaro promoted the strengthening of the ritsuryō system’s operation and pursued highly centralized governance, establishing an outstanding position even within the Fujiwara clan. In 757 (the first year of Tenpyō Hōji), the Yōrō Code—originally compiled in 718 under the leadership of Fujiwara no Fuhito and others—was formally put into effect under Nakamaro’s regime, thereby completing the legal framework of the ritsuryō state.

In the same year, 757, Tachibana no Naramaro, the son of Tachibana no Moroe, conspired with members of the imperial family and remnants of former political forces to stage a coup, but the plot was discovered in advance and failed (the Rebellion of Tachibana no Naramaro). This incident further strengthened Nakamaro’s power, and the government increasingly converged into a system centered on Fujiwara no Nakamaro. However, his overwhelming authority eventually deepened conflicts with imperial family factions and Buddhist forces, becoming a factor that would later lead to the Fujiwara no Nakamaro Rebellion (also known as the Rebellion of Emi no Oshikatsu).

 

The Age of Dōkyō

The regime of Fujiwara no Nakamaro was supported by the backing of his clan and the trust of Empress Dowager Kōmyō. Even after Emperor Junnin ascended the throne, Nakamaro continued to hold real political power. However, when Empress Dowager Kōmyō died in 760, tensions between the retired Empress Kōken (formerly Empress Kōken) and Nakamaro came to the surface. From around 762, the monk Dōkyō—who performed prayers and personally attended to the retired empress during her illness—won her favor and rapidly expanded his political influence. Alarmed by this development, Nakamaro sought to secure control over the military and in 764 launched the Rebellion of Emi no Oshikatsu, but he was defeated and destroyed.

Afterward, the retired empress reascended the throne as Empress Shōtoku in 764 and entrusted real power to Dōkyō, appointing him as Daijō Daijin Zenji (Great Minister of State and Buddhist prelate). Under Dōkyō’s regime, Buddhist policies were further strengthened, syncretism between Shinto and Buddhism advanced, and Buddhist elements were incorporated into state rituals. In 769, it was claimed that a divine oracle had been issued from Usa Hachiman Shrine declaring that “Dōkyō should be placed on the throne.” However, Wake no Kiyomaro rejected this claim, and the incident—known as the Usa Hachiman Oracle Incident—shook the imperial court. When Empress Shōtoku died in 770, the imperial succession did not pass to Dōkyō; instead, Emperor Kōnin, of the line of Emperor Tenji, ascended the throne. Dōkyō was exiled to Shimotsuke Province and died the following year, in 771.

 

The Era of Fujiwara no Momokawa (Shikike Branch)

When Empress Shōtoku died in 770, the political situation became unstable over the question of imperial succession, and Dōkyō fell from power. In this process, Fujiwara no Momokawa of the Shikike branch, working together with Fujiwara no Nagate and Kibi no Makibi, succeeded in supporting Prince Shirakabe and enthroning him as Emperor Kōnin. As a result, the imperial line of Emperor Tenji was restored, and the legitimacy of the succession was reaffirmed. The government of Emperor Kōnin was administered under a consultative system led by influential nobles and officials, including Momokawa. Reflecting on the excesses of the Shōtoku reign and the Dōkyō regime, the court sought to restore ritsuryō-style governance centered on aristocratic bureaucrats. The political influence of Buddhist forces receded, and a system in which secular officials once again conducted the affairs of state was gradually reestablished. Momokawa was deeply involved in this style of governance and played a certain role in stabilizing the state order, but Emperor Kōnin’s reign continued even after his death. In time, a political structure centered on Crown Prince Yamabe (later Emperor Kanmu) took shape, laying the groundwork for the political transition from the late Nara period to the Heian period.

 

Timeline of the Nara period

710	Transfer of the capital to Heijō-kyō (Empress Genmei)
711	Chikusen Jōi Edict (promotion of monetary circulation)
718	Compilation of the Yōrō Code (promulgated in 757)
722	Edict for the One-Million-Chō Land Reclamation Plan
723	Law of Three Generations and One Lifetime (Sanze-isshin no hō)
729	Prince Nagaya Incident (led by the Four Fujiwara Brothers)
740	Fujiwara no Hirotsugu’s Rebellion (Dazaifu)
743	Law of Perpetual Private Ownership of Reclaimed Land (Konden Einen Shizaihō)
757	Tachibana no Naramaro Incident
757	Promulgation of the Yōrō Code
764	Emi no Oshikatsu Rebellion (Rebellion of Fujiwara no Nakamaro)

Facilities where you can learn about the Nara period

Heijokyo Palace Site Museum (Nara City, Nara Prefecture)
https://www.nabunken.go.jp/heijo/museum/index.html

Shosoin Repository (Nara City, Nara Prefecture)
http://shosoin.kunaicho.go.jp/

Toshodai-ji Temple (Nara City, Nara Prefecture)
https://toshodaiji.jp/english/index.html

Todai-ji Temple, Head Temple of the Kegon Sect (Nara City, Nara Prefecture)
http://www.todaiji.or.jp/index.html

Kofuku-ji Temple, Head Temple of the Hossō Sect (Nara City, Nara Prefecture)
http://www.kohfukuji.com/

Yakushi-ji Temple (Nara City, Nara Prefecture)
http://www.nara-yakushiji.com/

Nara Prefectural Museum of Manyo Culture (Asuka Village, Takaichi District, Nara Prefecture)
https://www.manyo.jp/en/

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