During the late Edo period, particularly from the Tenpo to Ansei periods, the Edo Shogunate faced domestic political stalemate and external crises, significantly destabilizing its ruling system. The Tenpo famine (1833–1839) occurred in the 1830s, causing widespread and severe damage, particularly in the Tohoku and Hokuriku regions. This severely impoverished rural areas, leading to frequent peasant uprisings and riots across the country, increasing social unrest and weakening the Shogunate's control. In 1837, Oshio Heihachiro, a former deputy of the Osaka Magistrate's Office, led a rebellion (the Oshio Heihachiro Rebellion). Based on the ideas of Yangmingism, Oshio harshly criticized the corruption of the Shogunate and its officials for failing to provide relief to the people suffering from the famine, and rose up in rebellion on moral grounds. Although the rebellion was quickly suppressed, it left a strong impression of the Shogunate's political and moral authority being shaken.
In response to this crisis, the shogunate, led by senior councilor Mizuno Tadakuni, carried out the Tenpo Reforms from 1841 to 1843. These reforms included encouraging frugality, cracking down on public morals, and strengthening control over publications. They also included the issuance of a "Return of Farmers Order" to encourage peasants who had fled to the cities to return to their villages and rebuild rural areas. However, the 1843 Order to Acquire Land (Jochirei), which sought to incorporate the territories of daimyo and hatamoto around Edo and Osaka into territory directly controlled by the shogunate, was withdrawn before implementation due to strong opposition from the daimyo and hatamoto, and the reforms failed. As a result, the shogunate's authority actually weakened.
Meanwhile, significant changes were also occurring in Japan's foreign relations. The defeat of the Qing Dynasty by Britain in the Opium Wars, which began in 1840, made Japan acutely aware of the military might of the Western powers. In response, the shogunate shifted its foreign policy in 1842, relaxing the previous order to drive away foreign ships and issuing the Tenpo Order for the Provision of Firewood and Water, which required foreign ships to be provided with firewood, water, and food before they departed.
Furthermore, in 1846, American envoy Biddle arrived in Uraga and demanded the opening of the country, but the shogunate refused. However, when American Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Uraga in 1853 and strongly demanded the opening of the country, the shogunate was forced to respond, and the following year, 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity was concluded, opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. Negotiations also progressed with Russian envoy Putiatin, and the Treaty of Peace and Amity between Japan and Russia was concluded in 1855.
At the time of Perry's arrival, Abe Masahiro, the chief senior councilor at the time of Perry's arrival, changed the shogunate's previous policymaking practices and adopted a policy of seeking the opinions of the Imperial Court and various daimyo. This marked an opportunity for the Imperial Court to become involved in politics, and its political influence continued to grow. The shogunate also introduced Western military technology with the aim of strengthening coastal defenses. Gunnery expert Takashima Shuho conducted training in Western-style artillery, while Nirayama magistrate Egawa Hidetatsu (commonly known as Tarozaemon) promoted the construction of reverberatory furnaces, among other measures, to improve the defense system.
Culturally, the Bunka culture that flourished during the Bunka and Bunsei periods declined somewhat after the Tenpo period, but its influence continued to be seen in popular culture. Ukiyo-e prints by Katsushika Hokusai and Utagawa Hiroshige, in particular, were widely popular and continued to develop as popular culture. However, the Tenpo Reforms imposed stricter controls on publications and public morals, placing certain restrictions on cultural activity.
As such, from the Tenpo to Ansei periods, the shogunate system was greatly shaken by a combination of social unrest due to famine and uprisings, a decline in the shogunate's authority due to the failure of the reforms, and external crises due to foreign influence.
In the mid-19th century, the Industrial Revolution led Western powers to expand into Asia in search of overseas markets and supply bases, and they began to demand that Japan also open its ports. In 1837, the American merchant ship Morrison arrived under the pretext of repatriating Japanese castaways, but the shogunate fired on it and forced it to leave in accordance with the Order to Drive Away Foreign Ships (the Morrison Incident). The subsequent defeat of the Qing Dynasty in the Opium Wars became a major catalyst for Japan to reassess its foreign policy.
After the Treaty of Peace and Amity between Japan and the United States was signed in 1854 and the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate were opened, the shogunate further expanded its diplomatic relations with Western countries, concluding treaties with Britain, Russia, the Netherlands, and France. Subsequently, Townsend Harris, the American Consul General who arrived in Shimoda in 1856, strongly urged Japan to conclude full-fledged commercial treaties. At the time, there was growing support within the Imperial Court for expelling foreigners, but the shogunate decided that opening the country to the outside world was inevitable. In 1858, Tairo (chief advisor) Ii Naosuke concluded the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States without Imperial sanction. That same year, the shogunate also concluded similar treaties of amity and commerce with the Netherlands, Russia, Great Britain, and France; these treaties are collectively known as the Ansei Five-Power Treaties.
These treaties led to the opening of Kanagawa (actually Yokohama), Nagasaki, and Hakodate in 1859, and further expansion of Niigata and Hyogo. They also stipulated the opening of Edo and Osaka. However, these treaties were disadvantageous and unequal, granting consular jurisdiction to foreigners and restricting Japan's tariff autonomy.
Opening the country led to a rapid increase in Japanese exports of raw silk and other products, but the discrepancy in the gold-silver exchange rate between Japan and other countries led to the outflow of large quantities of gold coins overseas. As a result, the shogunate recoined currency in 1860, issuing Man'en koban coins with approximately one-third the gold content, but this resulted in rising prices and economic turmoil.
Amid this social unrest, the Sonno Joi movement, which called for the exclusion of foreign powers and an emperor-centered government, spread, and political activism became more active, centered around lower-ranking samurai influenced by Mitogaku and Kokugaku. In response, Ii Naosuke carried out the Ansei Purge from 1858 to 1859 to suppress opponents, but was assassinated in the Sakuradamon Incident in 1860. This incident greatly weakened the shogunate's authority, and Japan entered the turbulent years of the late Edo period, eventually leading to the downfall of the Edo shogunate and the Meiji Restoration.
After the country opened its doors to the world, the shogunate promoted a policy of combining the military and the imperial court, seeking to restore its authority through cooperation with the imperial court. In 1862, Shimazu Hisamitsu, a powerful figure in the Satsuma domain, led an army to Tokyo, sparking calls for a unified military alliance. Hisamitsu's efforts at both the imperial court and the shogunate led to the appointment of Tokugawa Yoshinobu (also known as Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu) as guardian of the shogun and Matsudaira Shungaku as chief minister, leading to the central reform of the shogunate (the Bunkyu Reforms). The shogunate attempted to restructure its system while incorporating the authority of the imperial court, but struggled to reconcile this with growing support for the expulsion of foreigners.
In 1863, the Choshu domain, backed by an imperial order from the imperial court to expel foreigners, bombarded foreign ships in the Shimonoseki Strait, sparking the Shimonoseki War (also known as the Shimonoseki War). However, in 1864, they were defeated in retaliation by a combined fleet of the British, French, American, and Dutch powers, and were forced to pay reparations. This made it clear that implementing expulsion of foreigners through military force would be difficult.
At the same time, the Satsuma domain came to realize the power of modern weaponry during the Anglo-Satsuma War of 1863 (when the British fleet bombarded Kagoshima), and thereafter shifted to a policy of opening the country to the world and strengthening its military. Meanwhile, in the Choshu domain, the defeat in the Kinmon Incident of 1864 and the First Choshu Expedition led to the elimination of the radical sonno joi faction (including the Three Elders), and the Zokuron faction (conservatives) gained control within the domain. However, in December of the same year, Takasugi Shinsaku led the Kosanji Uprising, overthrew the Zokuron faction, and established a government led by the Seigi faction. The Choshu domain, while outwardly demonstrating a submissive attitude toward the shogunate under the slogan of "military submission," strengthened its military and eventually solidified its policy of aiming to overthrow the shogunate.
It was in this context that in January 1866, Saigo Takamori and Komatsu Tatewaki of the Satsuma domain and Kido Takayoshi of the Choshu domain formed the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance, with the mediation of Sakamoto Ryoma and others. This brought the Satsuma and Choshu domains, which had previously been at odds, into alliance, forming a powerful military and political alliance to oppose the shogunate. In response, the shogunate launched the Second Choshu Expedition (the Four-Border War) in June of the same year. However, the Choshu domain, led by modern military forces such as the Kiheitai, which were not bound by social status, repelled the shogunate forces in various places, causing heavy losses and forcing them to retreat. This defeat severely damaged the shogunate's military prestige and made clear the decline of its control.
Furthermore, with the death of Emperor Komei in December of the same year, the relationship between the Imperial Court and the shogunate changed dramatically, and the political situation became even more fluid. The shogunate's authority rapidly declined, and Japanese politics entered a turbulent phase leading to the overthrow of the shogunate.
In November 1867 (October 14, Keio 3), the 15th Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, returned power to the Imperial Court. This was intended to maintain the Shogunate's political influence while also maintaining leadership within the new political system.
However, on December 9 of the same year (November 9, Keio 3), anti-shogunate factions from the Satsuma, Choshu, and Tosa domains lobbied the Imperial Court and issued a proclamation of the Restoration of Imperial Rule. This abolished the old official positions of Shogun, Regent, and Chancellor, and declared the establishment of a new government centered on the Emperor, bringing an end to the Shogunate's political system. Furthermore, the new government demanded that Yoshinobu resign and return his official titles and territories, but Yoshinobu strongly opposed this, and the conflict between the former Shogunate forces and the new government escalated into armed conflict.
In January 1868 (January 4th year of the Keio era), the Battle of Toba-Fushimi took place in southern Kyoto, where the new government forces defeated the former Shogunate forces. This marked the start of the Boshin War, with fighting spreading across Japan. In April of the same year, negotiations between Saigo Takamori of the new government forces and Katsu Kaishu of the former Shogunate resulted in the bloodless surrender of Edo Castle, avoiding large-scale fighting in Edo. This placed the Shogunate's headquarters under the control of the new government.
However, in the Tohoku region, the Aizu and Shonai clans formed the Oshu-Uetsu Alliance to oppose the new government, and the fighting spread to northern Japan. Furthermore, Enomoto Takeaki, leader of the former Shogunate Navy, escaped from Edo with a fleet in October 1868 and traveled to Ezo. Enomoto and his allies established their own administration (the Hakodate Government) based in Hakodate (present-day Hakodate) and opposed the new government. In response, new government forces marched into Ezo in 1869 and defeated the former shogunate forces in the Battle of Hakodate. With the surrender of Enomoto Takeaki in June 1869, the Boshin War came to an end, marking the complete demise of the Edo Shogunate, which had existed for approximately 260 years.
Meanwhile, the new government had already issued the Five Articles of Oath in 1868 (the first year of the Meiji era), outlining the basic policies of the new nation. Also that same year, Edo was renamed Tokyo, and the Emperor visited Tokyo in 1868 and fully relocated there in 1869, making Tokyo the de facto capital (Tokyo was designated the new capital). The new government then proceeded with centralization, returning the domains and people to the daimyo in 1869, and then carrying out the Abolition of Domains and Establishment of Prefectures in 1871, abolishing the domains and establishing prefectures. This completely dismantled the shogunate-han system.
Furthermore, the new government promoted modernization with the basic policies of enriching the country and strengthening the military and encouraging industry, and from 1871 to 1873 sent the Iwakura Mission to Europe and the United States to investigate Western political systems, industry, and military technology, and used the findings to advance the construction of a modern nation.
In this way, Japan broke away from the feudal shogunate and domain system and entered a new era, the Meiji period, as a centralized modern nation centered on the Emperor.
| 1842 | The Tenpo Order for the Provision of Firewood and Water is issued, relaxing the Order to Drive Away Foreign Ships and allowing the provision of firewood, water, and food to foreign ships. |
| 1843 | The Order for Confiscation is issued, but is not implemented due to opposition from the various feudal domains. The Tenpo Reforms reach a deadlock. |
| 1844 | A letter of recommendation from King William II of the Netherlands arrives, advising Japan to open its ports. The shogunate rejects it. |
| 1853 | American envoy Matthew Perry arrives in Uraga and demands that Japan open to the outside world. |
| 1854 | The Treaty of Peace and Amity between the United States and Japan (Treaty of Kanagawa) is signed. Shimoda and Hakodate are opened as ports of call, allowing ships to receive firewood, water, and food. |
| 1855 | The Ansei Edo earthquake occurs, causing severe damage to Edo. |
| 1856 | Townsend Harris takes up his post in Shimoda. Negotiations for a trade treaty begin. |
| 1858 | Tairo Ii Naosuke concludes the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States without imperial sanction. A system of unequal treaties is established. The Ansei Purge begins. |
| 1859 | The ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki, and Hakodate are opened. Foreign settlements are established. |
| 1860 | The Sakuradamon Incident occurs. Ii Naosuke is assassinated. |
| 1861 | Princess Kazunomiya marries Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi. The policy of uniting the Imperial Court and the Shogunate advances. |
| 1862 | The Namamugi Incident occurs. Satsuma samurai kill and injure British citizens. |
| 1863 | The Choshu clan bombards a foreign ship in Shimonoseki (the Shimonoseki Incident). |
| 1864 | The Choshu clan is defeated in the Kinmon Incident (also known as the Hamaguri Gate Incident). The First Choshu Expedition results in the Choshu clan’s submission to the shogunate. That same year, the Shikoku Fleet bombards Shimonoseki. |
| 1865 | The shogunate decides to launch a second expedition against Choshu and begins preparations. |
| 1866 | The Satsuma-Choshu Alliance is formed. Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi dies. The shogunate forces are defeated in the second expedition against Choshu. |
| 1867 | The 15th shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, returns political power to the emperor. In the same year, a proclamation for the restoration of imperial rule is issued. |
Uraga Brick Dock (Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.wakuwaku-yokosuka.jp/uragarengadock.php
Perry Memorial Hall, Yokosuka City (Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/5560/sisetu/fc00000442.html
Yokohama Archives of History (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
http://www.kaikou.city.yokohama.jp/
Shimoda Museum of the Opening of Japan (Shimoda City, Shizuoka Prefecture)
https://www.shimoda-museum.jp/
Former British Consulate (Opening Memorial Hall) (Hakodate City, Hokkaido)
https://www.fbcoh.net/
Yamate Western-style Houses (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.hama-midorinokyokai.or.jp/yamate-seiyoukan/
Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture (Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture)
https://www.nmhc.jp/
Dejima (Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture)
https://nagasakidejima.jp/
Sakamoto Ryōma Memorial Museum, Kochi Prefectural (Kochi City, Kochi Prefecture)
https://ryoma-kinenkan.jp/
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