Japanese History Digest
Late Edo Period
The Approach of Western Powers and the Opening of Japan
In the 19th century, Western nations, driven by the Industrial Revolution, intensified their expansion into Asia, and Japan began to feel the impact of their advance. In the 1837 Morrison Incident, Japan repelled an American ship that had come to return shipwrecked Japanese sailors, citing the Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels. This action demonstrated the strict foreign policy of the Tokugawa shogunate. However, this policy soon faced a turning point.
In 1853, U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry arrived at Uraga with a fleet and strongly demanded the opening of the country. Under this pressure, the shogunate signed the Treaty of Peace and Amity with the United States in 1854, agreeing to open the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. Further, in 1858, under the leadership of Senior Minister (Tairō) Ii Naosuke, Japan concluded the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States. This forced Japan to open under unequal terms, including the loss of tariff autonomy and the acceptance of extraterritoriality.
Such a sudden shift in the international environment, along with rising prices and growing social unrest, intensified public dissatisfaction with the shogunate and led to the spread of the Sonnō Jōi movement ("Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians"). Court nobles and activists from various domains who opposed the treaties resisted the authoritarian policies of Ii Naosuke and were suppressed during the Ansei Purge. Nevertheless, opposition persisted, and in 1860, Ii Naosuke was assassinated in the Sakuradamon Incident, dealing a serious blow to the shogunate’s prestige.
The Fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate
After the opening of the country, the shogunate tried to maintain control over national politics, but both domestic and international situations changed rapidly. The Chōshū Domain, which had initially advocated expelling foreigners, suffered defeat in battles with Western powers and came to accept the need for opening the country and modernization. Amid these developments, the Satsuma and Chōshū domains, which had strengthened their opposition to the shogunate, formed the Satchō Alliance in 1866 through the mediation of Sakamoto Ryōma, accelerating the movement to overthrow the shogunate.
In 1867, the 15th shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, formally returned political authority to the imperial court in an act known as the Taisei Hōkan ("Restoration of Imperial Rule"), marking the formal end of Tokugawa rule. However, viewing this as merely a superficial gesture, the Satchō forces launched the Boshin War in 1868, beginning with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi, to seize power by force.
Although the civil war spread across the country, in April 1868, thanks to negotiations between Saigō Takamori and Katsu Kaishū, Edo Castle was peacefully surrendered without bloodshed, avoiding large-scale conflict in the capital. With the conclusion of the Boshin War in 1869, the Tokugawa regime completely collapsed, bringing an end to the Tokugawa shogunate’s 260-year rule. Thus, Japan embarked on its path toward becoming a modern nation under the Meiji government.
Timeline of Late Edo Period
| 1842 AD | The Tenpō Directive on the Provision of Firewood and Water is issued. The Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels is relaxed, allowing aid to shipwrecked foreign vessels—an early sign of opening the country. |
| 1843 AD | The Land Requisition Order is issued in an attempt to convert feudal domains around Edo and Osaka into shogunal territory, but is withdrawn due to strong opposition. |
| 1844 AD | The King of the Netherlands advises the shogun to open Japan. The shogunate begins seeking ways to respond to foreign diplomatic pressure. |
| 1853 AD | Commodore Perry of the United States arrives at Uraga, demanding the opening of Japan. He announces his return the following year. |
| 1854 AD | The Treaty of Peace and Amity between Japan and the United States is signed, opening Shimoda and Hakodate. This marks the de facto end of Japan’s isolation policy. Similar treaties are signed with Britain, Russia, and the Netherlands. |
| 1855 AD | The Ansei Great Earthquake (also known as the Edo Earthquake) strikes, causing devastating damage to urban areas. Disasters and epidemics continue into the following year. |
| 1856 AD | Townsend Harris arrives in Shimoda as the first U.S. Consul and begins negotiations for a commercial treaty. |
| 1858 AD | The Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States is signed. As an unequal treaty, it grants extraterritorial rights and forfeits tariff autonomy. Ii Naosuke is appointed Tairō (Chief Minister). |
| 1859 AD | The Ansei Purge intensifies, with suppression of court nobles and activists in the Sonnō Jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement. The ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki, and Hakodate are opened. |
| 1860 AD | The Sakuradamon Incident occurs: Ii Naosuke is assassinated by Mito ronin, significantly weakening the authority of the shogunate. |
| 1861 AD | As part of the Kōbu Gattai (Union of Court and Shogunate) policy, Princess Kazunomiya marries Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi, aiming to reconcile the shogunate with the imperial court. |
| 1862 AD | The Namamugi Incident takes place, where a Satsuma samurai kills a British national, eventually leading to the Anglo-Satsuma War. 1863 – The Chōshū Domain fires on foreign vessels at Shimonoseki in an act of expelling the barbarians (Jōi). This leads to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by the Allied Fleet. |
| 1864 AD | The Kinmon Incident (also known as the Hamaguri Gate Rebellion) occurs. Chōshū Domain suffers defeat, and the First Chōshū Expedition is launched by the shogunate. |
| 1865 AD | The shogunate orders feudal domains to dispatch troops in preparation for the Second Chōshū Expedition. Chōshū modernizes its military along Western lines. |
| 1866 AD | The Satchō Alliance is formed through the mediation of Sakamoto Ryōma. Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi dies. The shogunate’s expedition against Chōshū fails. |
| 1867 AD | The Taisei Hōkan ("Restoration of Imperial Rule") is carried out. Tokugawa Yoshinobu returns governing authority to the imperial court, bringing an end to the Tokugawa shogunate. |
Facilities where you can learn about Late Edo Period
Uraga Brick Dock (Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.wakuwaku-yokosuka.jp/uragarengadock.php
Perry Memorial Hall, Yokosuka City (Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/5560/sisetu/fc00000442.html
Yokohama Archives of History (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
http://www.kaikou.city.yokohama.jp/
Shimoda Museum of the Opening of Japan (Shimoda City, Shizuoka Prefecture)
https://www.shimoda-museum.jp/
Former British Consulate (Opening Memorial Hall) (Hakodate City, Hokkaido)
https://www.fbcoh.net/
Yamate Western-style Houses (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.hama-midorinokyokai.or.jp/yamate-seiyoukan/
Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture (Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture)
https://www.nmhc.jp/
Dejima (Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture)
https://nagasakidejima.jp/
Sakamoto Ryōma Memorial Museum, Kochi Prefectural (Kochi City, Kochi Prefecture)
https://ryoma-kinenkan.jp/
