Japanese History Digest

Late Edo Period

The Late Tenpo Reforms and Shogunate Turmoil

Following the failure of the Tenpo Reforms (1841-1843), the shogunate, under the leadership of senior councilor Abe Masahiro, sought a policy of combining the Imperial Court and the Shogunate, but faced both domestic and international crises. Beginning in the late 1840s, the arrival of foreign ships increased, leading to the arrival of the American envoy James Grigg in 1846, the Russian envoy Putyatin in 1850, and Commodore Perry in 1853. In response, the shogunate strengthened its edicts to repel foreign ships, but, recognizing its military inferiority, the debate over whether to open the country or expel foreigners intensified.

Social unrest during the Tenpo period was severe, and the 1837 Oshio Heihachiro Rebellion (an uprising against the salt monopoly in Tenma, Osaka) was symbolic as an intellectual-led uprising. Famine and commercial unrest plagued farmers and townspeople, revealing the shogunate's weakening control. Culturally, the Bunka era continued, with ukiyo-e prints by Katsushika Hokusai and Utagawa Hiroshige and reading books by Kyokutei Bakin dominating the popular culture. However, amid rising political tensions, Dutch studies (deciphering Dutch and Western-style artillery) secretly spread.

 

Approach of Western Powers and Opening of Japan

In the mid-19th century, Western powers strengthened their imperialist expansion following the Industrial Revolution, colonizing Asia and Africa. Japan became a target, and the Morrison Incident of 1837 (an American merchant ship arrived under the pretext of repatriating castaways, but was repelled by gunfire under the Order to Drive Away Foreign Ships) demonstrated Japan's adherence to isolation, but the disparity in military power was clear.

The turning point came in July 1853, when four black ships led by Commodore Perry arrived in Uraga. Presenting a "personal letter from the President of the United States," they forced Japan to open its borders. The shogunate held discussions under the leadership of Elder Councilor Abe Masahiro, but faced with the threat of the great powers (learning of China's defeat after the Opium Wars), the shogunate concluded the Treaty of Peace and Amity between Japan and the United States (Kanagawa Treaty) in March 1854. The ports of Shimoda and Hakodate were opened, and an American consul was permitted to be stationed there, marking the beginning of a limited opening of the country.

This led to similar treaties being concluded with Russia, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, and between 1856 and 1858, Minister to Japan Townsend Harris pressed for trade treaty negotiations. Tairo (chief councilor) Ii Naosuke unilaterally concluded the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States in 1858 (the Ansei Five-Nation Treaties) without imperial permission. This unequal treaty, which planned to open the ports of Yokohama, Kobe, Osaka, Nagasaki, and Niigata, and eliminated tariff autonomy and consular jurisdiction, sent shock waves throughout the country.

Opening the country led to soaring prices of goods and rice, increasing social unrest. The Sonno Joi movement spread throughout the country, and patriots influenced by Mitogaku (Mito school of thought), such as Yoshida Shoin, rose to prominence. Ii's authoritarian rule led to the suppression of nobles and patriots in the Ansei Purge (1858-1859), but in 1860 he was assassinated by Mito ronin in the Sakuradamon Incident, and the shogunate's prestige was tarnished.

 

Political Turmoil at the End of the Edo Period

After the country's opening, the shogunate attempted to restore its authority through a coalition of the Imperial Court and the military (cooperation between the Imperial Court and the samurai). It supported Hitotsubashi Keiki (later known as Keiki) as the next shogun and sought Emperor Komei's confidence, but the strong support of the anti-foreigner movement led to failure. In 1862, Satsuma feudal lord Shimazu Hisamitsu's argument for expelling foreigners from Kyoto and the Shimonoseki War of 1863 (in which the Choshu domain attacked American and French ships and suffered a defeat) forced the anti-foreigner faction to acknowledge reality.

During the Bunkyu period (1863-1865), Satsuma turned to peace with the British fleet following the Anglo-Satsuma War (bombardment of Kagoshima) and accelerated modernization. In Choshu, the pro-opening faction took the lead with a coup led by Takasugi Shinsaku. In 1864, the Ikedaya Incident (the elimination of Choshu patriots in Kyoto), the Kinmon Incident (the Choshu army's failed storming of the Kyoto Imperial Palace), and the First Choshu Expedition gave the shogunate the upper hand. However, the Four Border War (the defeat of the new government forces in Suo and Nagato) led to internal divisions within Choshu and the strengthening of modern military capabilities.

In 1866, with the mediation of Sakamoto Ryoma, Saigo Takamori and Komatsu Tatewaki of Satsuma and Kido Takayoshi of Choshu formed the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance. As the Satsuma-Choshu alliance's military strength and desire to overthrow the shogunate became decisive, following the death of Emperor Komei (1866), nobles such as Iwakura Tomomi supported the establishment of a new government.

 

The Fall of the Edo Shogunate and the Meiji Restoration

In October 1867, the 15th shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, returned power to the emperor and proclaimed the restoration of imperial rule (December 1867). The establishment of a new government was approved, but the royalist faction, centered around Satsuma and Choshu, viewed this as "delay," and in January 1868, the new government forces were victorious in the Battle of Toba-Fushimi, thus starting the Boshin War.

The civil war spread to Tohoku and Hokkaido, with the Aizu clan sieging, the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei (Ōshu-etsu Alliance) resisting, and the Battle of Hakodate (Enomoto Takeaki's Ezo Republic) giving the new government the upper hand. In April, Saigo Takamori and Katsu Kaishu pacified the capital with the bloodless surrender of Edo. In 1869, the all-out attack on Hakodate brought an end to the Boshin War, and the Edo Shogunate, which had lasted for approximately 265 years, came to an end.

The new government declared its modernization with the Five Articles of Oath (1868), and established centralism with the relocation of the capital to Tokyo (1868) and the abolition of the feudal domains and the establishment of prefectures (1871). Under the banner of "civilization, enlightenment, and strengthening the nation and military," the Iwakura Mission (1871-1873) visited Europe and the United States, marking the start of the Meiji Restoration. This marked the transition of Japan from a feudal society to a modern nation-state.

 

Timeline of Late Edo Period

1842 AD	The Tenpō Directive on the Provision of Firewood and Water is issued. The Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels is relaxed, allowing aid to shipwrecked foreign vessels—an early sign of opening the country.
1843 AD	The Land Requisition Order is issued in an attempt to convert feudal domains around Edo and Osaka into shogunal territory, but is withdrawn due to strong opposition.
1844 AD	The King of the Netherlands advises the shogun to open Japan. The shogunate begins seeking ways to respond to foreign diplomatic pressure.
1853 AD	Commodore Perry of the United States arrives at Uraga, demanding the opening of Japan. He announces his return the following year.
1854 AD	The Treaty of Peace and Amity between Japan and the United States is signed, opening Shimoda and Hakodate. This marks the de facto end of Japan’s isolation policy. Similar treaties are signed with Britain, Russia, and the Netherlands.
1855 AD	The Ansei Great Earthquake (also known as the Edo Earthquake) strikes, causing devastating damage to urban areas. Disasters and epidemics continue into the following year.
1856 AD	Townsend Harris arrives in Shimoda as the first U.S. Consul and begins negotiations for a commercial treaty.
1858 AD	The Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States is signed. As an unequal treaty, it grants extraterritorial rights and forfeits tariff autonomy. Ii Naosuke is appointed Tairō (Chief Minister).
1859 AD	The Ansei Purge intensifies, with suppression of court nobles and activists in the Sonnō Jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement. The ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki, and Hakodate are opened.
1860 AD	The Sakuradamon Incident occurs: Ii Naosuke is assassinated by Mito ronin, significantly weakening the authority of the shogunate.
1861 AD	As part of the Kōbu Gattai (Union of Court and Shogunate) policy, Princess Kazunomiya marries Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi, aiming to reconcile the shogunate with the imperial court.
1862 AD	The Namamugi Incident takes place, where a Satsuma samurai kills a British national, eventually leading to the Anglo-Satsuma War. 1863 – The Chōshū Domain fires on foreign vessels at Shimonoseki in an act of expelling the barbarians (Jōi). This leads to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by the Allied Fleet.
1864 AD	The Kinmon Incident (also known as the Hamaguri Gate Rebellion) occurs. Chōshū Domain suffers defeat, and the First Chōshū Expedition is launched by the shogunate.
1865 AD	The shogunate orders feudal domains to dispatch troops in preparation for the Second Chōshū Expedition. Chōshū modernizes its military along Western lines.
1866 AD	The Satchō Alliance is formed through the mediation of Sakamoto Ryōma. Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi dies. The shogunate’s expedition against Chōshū fails.
1867 AD	The Taisei Hōkan ("Restoration of Imperial Rule") is carried out. Tokugawa Yoshinobu returns governing authority to the imperial court, bringing an end to the Tokugawa shogunate.

Facilities where you can learn about Late Edo Period

Uraga Brick Dock (Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.wakuwaku-yokosuka.jp/uragarengadock.php

Perry Memorial Hall, Yokosuka City (Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/5560/sisetu/fc00000442.html

Yokohama Archives of History (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
http://www.kaikou.city.yokohama.jp/

Shimoda Museum of the Opening of Japan (Shimoda City, Shizuoka Prefecture)
https://www.shimoda-museum.jp/

Former British Consulate (Opening Memorial Hall) (Hakodate City, Hokkaido)
https://www.fbcoh.net/

Yamate Western-style Houses (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture)
https://www.hama-midorinokyokai.or.jp/yamate-seiyoukan/


Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture (Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture)
https://www.nmhc.jp/

Dejima (Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture)
https://nagasakidejima.jp/

Sakamoto Ryōma Memorial Museum, Kochi Prefectural (Kochi City, Kochi Prefecture)
https://ryoma-kinenkan.jp/

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