Japanese History Digest

Mid-Edo Period

Genroku Era (Tsunayoshi)

The Genroku era refers to the period centering around the Genroku years (1688–1704) during the mid-Edo period, which coincides with the reign of the fifth shogun, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1680–1709). Recent studies have reassessed the Edicts on Compassion for Living Things, traditionally regarded as “bad laws,” recognizing them as social policies aimed at transitioning from the militaristic rule of the Warring States period. Particular attention is given to their humanitarian aspects, such as prohibiting the abandonment of infants and protecting the weak.

Economically, the long-lasting peace under the Tokugawa shogunate improved agricultural productivity and expanded commercial distribution. The growth of cities such as Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto led to the rise of the merchant class both economically and culturally. Although the currency debasement of 1695 triggered inflation, the Genroku period as a whole was marked by stable rice prices and the circulation of gold and silver, which supported economic prosperity.

Culturally, Ihara Saikaku realistically portrayed merchant life through ukiyo-zōshi fiction, while Matsuo Bashō elevated haikai poetry to a high art form. The establishment of ukiyo-e woodblock prints, exemplified by Hishikawa Moronobu’s Looking Back Beauty, and the premiere of Chikamatsu Monzaemon’s The Love Suicides at Sonezaki (1703) symbolized the maturity of Genroku culture. The completion of Kōrakuen Garden by the Mito branch of the Tokugawa family around 1700 also represents the peak of garden culture during this period.

Politically, the Edicts on Compassion for Living Things imposed excessive regulations that caused friction in commoners’ daily lives. In the latter part of the Genroku era, signs of financial decline within the shogunate began to appear, foreshadowing the economic instability of the Hōei period (from 1704).

Natural disasters also marked the era, including the Genroku Earthquake of 1703, which caused severe damage in the Kanto region. The 1702 Akō Incident—where the 47 rōnin avenged their lord’s death—attracted great attention, and the events from the raid to their ritual suicide in 1703 profoundly influenced later works of art.

Overall, the Genroku era is characterized by economic prosperity and the flourishing of urban commoner culture. It holds a vital place as a formative period in modern Japanese culture and is notable for the sophistication of urban life.

 

Shōtoku Reforms (Ienobu and Ietsugu)

The Shōtoku Reforms were political reforms carried out during the reigns of Tokugawa Ienobu and Tokugawa Ietsugu, aimed at restoring the shogunate’s finances and improving relations with the imperial court. These reforms were led by Arai Hakuseki, a Confucian scholar and advisor. This period is regarded as important for stabilizing the Tokugawa shogunate.

Since the fifth shogun Tsunayoshi left no heir, Ienobu was adopted and became the sixth shogun. His son Ietsugu succeeded him as the seventh shogun, during which Hakuseki played a key role in shogunal administration. Drawing on his Neo-Confucianist knowledge, Hakuseki implemented wide-ranging reforms in politics, economics, and diplomacy.

The main policies of the Shōtoku Reforms include:
1.Improved Relations with the Imperial Court
To ease tensions with the court—strained since the 1627 Purple Robes Incident—Hakuseki established the Kan'in-no-miya branch of the imperial family in 1710. This move showed respect toward the court and helped normalize relations, contributing to political stability.

2.Currency Reform
The debased Genroku-era gold and silver coins had caused inflation. Hakuseki restored their content to Keichō-era levels by minting Shōtoku gold and silver, stabilizing the currency and strengthening the economic foundation.
3.Simplification of Joseon Mission Protocol
Entertaining missions from Korea had previously cost the shogunate over one million ryō. Hakuseki streamlined their treatment to reduce expenses, easing the financial burden and supporting fiscal recovery.

 

Kyōhō Reforms (Yoshimune)

The Kyōhō Reforms were government reforms initiated by the eighth shogun, Tokugawa Yoshimune, from 1716 to 1745. These aimed to restore shogunate finances and reassert its authority, marking a significant political shift in the mid-Edo period.

To rebuild finances, Yoshimune implemented various policies. In 1722, the Shōmai no Sei (Rice Contribution System) required daimyōs to contribute rice (100 koku per 10,000 koku of holdings) in exchange for halving their Edo attendance term. This yielded about 180,000 koku annually for the shogunate, but arguably weakened its authority.

Yoshimune also reformed the land tax system by raising the tax rate from “four for the government, six for the people” to an even 50-50 split, increasing revenues. The Fixed Tax System based taxes on average historical yields, providing stability for both farmers and officials. He enlisted Kishu-domain engineer Izawa Yasobei to promote new farmland development using merchant capital.

In terms of personnel, Yoshimune introduced the Ashidaka System, promoting talented individuals regardless of social rank. For example, village headman Tanaka Kyūsuke was appointed magistrate, illustrating a nascent meritocracy.

Socially, in 1721, he set up a suggestion box (meyasubako) before the government offices to collect public opinion. In 1742, the Kujikata Osadamegaki legal code was compiled, improving legal consistency. The Aitaisumashi Rei policy addressed samurai debts by encouraging private settlements.

Agriculturally, Yoshimune appointed Aoki Konyō to promote sweet potato cultivation to mitigate famine risks. He also encouraged the cultivation of commercial crops like cotton, rapeseed, and indigo to revitalize rural economies.

While the reforms achieved some success—raising revenues and stabilizing rice prices—they also increased the tax burden on farmers, sparking uprisings. The 1732 Kyōhō Famine exposed flaws in the fixed tax system, as farmers faced high taxes despite crop failures.

The Kyōhō Reforms, alongside the Kansei and Tenpō Reforms, are considered one of the Tokugawa shogunate’s “Three Great Reforms.” Though they did not resolve fundamental issues like rural inequality, the reforms’ use of merchant capital in land development marked a shift toward a new social structure.

 

Tanuma Politics (Tanuma Okitsugu)

Tanuma Okitsugu rose from being chamberlain to senior councilor under the tenth shogun, Tokugawa Ieharu, and led shogunal policy in the late 18th century. Aware of the limitations of agriculture-based revenue, he pioneered fiscal reform based on commerce, marking a significant departure from agrarian principles to a proto-mercantilist approach.

Tanuma promoted commerce by officially recognizing kabunakama merchant guilds, which monopolized specific trades in exchange for regular tribute payments. These taxes—unjōkin and myōgakin—offered stable revenue. He also transitioned from weight-based silver currency to count-based coinage, stabilizing the currency system and fixing exchange rates.

He expanded trade through Nagasaki, promoting the export of dried abalone, shark fins, and dried sardines, which created a trade surplus with China. By shifting trade settlement from silver to copper or goods, he curbed the outflow of precious metals. In 1785, he established the tarumono moto-yakusho (Regional Export Bureau) in Ezo (Hokkaido), tying trade expansion to regional development.

However, his policies were controversial. Critics accused him of corruption and collusion with merchants. Natural disasters like the Tenmei Famine (1782) and the 1783 Mt. Asama eruption exacerbated unrest. Peasant uprisings surged nationwide. After Shogun Ieharu died in 1786, the anti-Tanuma faction gained power, and Tanuma was dismissed the same year.

Although traditionally condemned as corrupt, modern historians view Tanuma’s policies as pioneering economic reforms. His efforts to stabilize currency, generate trade surpluses, and retain precious metals were advanced for their time. The prevalence of corruption in the era suggests that Tanuma alone should not bear the full blame.

Ultimately short-lived, Tanuma’s administration marked a fundamental challenge to the shogunate’s agrarian-based fiscal system. His proto-mercantilist ideas greatly influenced later Tokugawa economic thought.

 

Kansei Reforms (Matsudaira Sadanobu)

The Kansei Reforms were political reforms led by Senior Councilor Matsudaira Sadanobu between 1787 and 1793. These reforms aimed to reverse the mercantilist policies of Tanuma Okitsugu by restoring rural stability and rebuilding shogunal authority. The core principles were frugality and strict moral discipline, modeled after Tokugawa Yoshimune’s Kyōhō Reforms.

1.Fiscal Reconstruction and Austerity Policies

The shogunate implemented strict frugality measures. Sumptuary laws prohibited luxury, urging both samurai and townspeople to lead simpler lives. In 1789, the Debt Cancellation Order (Kichienrei) annulled debts incurred by samurai retainers before 1784, aiming to relieve their financial burden. However, this devastated moneylenders (sashidashi), severely damaging the government’s credit.

As a relief measure in cities, the Seven-Tenths Reserve Fund System was introduced, requiring 70% of town budgets to be reserved for disasters or aid to the poor.

2.Rural Recovery Policies

To return displaced farmers to their villages, the Orikigifukōrei (Return to Farming Order) of 1790 provided financial aid, but the requirement for guarantors limited its success.

As a famine countermeasure, a Rice Reserve System was introduced, obligating domains to store 50 bales of rice per 10,000 koku of rice yield. Local rice granary systems such as shasō and gisō were also reorganized in response to the Tenmei Famine.

3.Urban Social Policies

To maintain public order in cities, a Laborers' Shelter (Ninsoku-Yoseba) was established on Ishikawajima in 1790. It offered work training to the homeless, helping them reintegrate into society. Additionally, Chōkaisho town halls were set up in Edo to stabilize rice prices and manage inflation.

4.Ideological Control

Another pillar of the reforms was ideological unification. The Kansei Prohibition of Heterodox Studies of 1790 banned all non-Zhu Xi (Shushigaku) Confucian teachings at the official academy (Yushima Seidō). In 1791, publishing regulations restricted satirical and erotic literature (sharebon, kibyōshi), aiming to restore public morality.

5.Contradictions and Limitations

Sadanobu’s reforms contained several contradictions. Although he rejected mercantilism, he relied financially on merchants affiliated with the shogunate. The return-to-farming policy ignored that urban work offered better wages, limiting its effectiveness. The ideological ban also suppressed academic diversity and hindered the development of Western studies (Rangaku) and National Learning (Kokugaku).

Historical Evaluation

Recent scholarship has reassessed the Kansei Reforms. Innovative famine responses like the rice reserves and progressive social policies like the laborers' shelters are now viewed positively. However, the harsh austerity policies dampened the consumer economy and failed to reform the structural fiscal issues.

Sadanobu also promoted exploration and coastal defense in Ezo, laying groundwork for future shogunate policies. While his reforms aimed at moral restoration and rural revitalization, their rigidity and disconnect from social realities led to limited success. Nonetheless, they are now appreciated as important examples of transitional social policies in the late Edo period.

 

Ōgosho Period and the Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion

The Ōgosho Period refers to the time when Tokugawa Ienari, the 11th shogun, retained power even after retirement. Ienari became shogun in 1787 and abdicated in favor of his son Ieyoshi in 1837, but continued to rule as Ōgosho (“retired shogun”) until his death in 1841.

This era includes the Bunka-Bunsei (1804–1830) and Kasei cultural periods, during which townspeople culture flourished in Edo. Ukiyo-e prints, kabuki theater, and haikai poetry thrived, enriching the everyday lives and entertainment of the common people.

However, the shogunate's finances deteriorated, and political tension slackened. Ienari and his close advisors lived extravagantly, drawing criticism for corruption and administrative decline. Social unrest escalated due to disasters like the Tenpō Famine (1833) and uprisings like the Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion (1837), exposing the weakening of Tokugawa authority. Additionally, the arrival of more foreign ships highlighted growing challenges to the policy of national seclusion (sakoku).

The Ōgosho Period ended with Ienari’s death in 1841, ushering in the Tenpō Reforms led by Mizuno Tadakuni—a return to stricter governance in response to growing instability.

In summary, the Ōgosho Period was a time of vibrant urban culture under Ienari’s long rule, but also one marked by fiscal decline, political corruption, and emerging threats to the Tokugawa system.

 

Tenpō Reforms (Mizuno Tadakuni)

In the early 19th century, amid public discontent from the Tenpō Famine and the Ōshio Rebellion, the death of Tokugawa Ienari in 1841 allowed Senior Councilor Mizuno Tadakuni to take control of the shogunate. His reform efforts from 1841 to 1843 are known as the Tenpō Reforms.

Mizuno first reinforced austerity by issuing stricter sumptuary laws, limiting both elite and commoner spending and entertainment. He cracked down on theaters and relocated pleasure quarters, deeply affecting urban lifestyles.

To stabilize prices, Mizuno dissolved the merchant guilds (kabunakama) that had enjoyed monopolistic privileges, hoping to restore fair market competition. However, this destabilized the commercial system and worsened economic conditions.

To reinforce central control, Mizuno issued the Land Requisition Order (Jōchi-rei), aiming to transfer lands around Edo and Osaka from daimyōs and hatamoto (vassals) into direct shogunate control. This policy provoked intense backlash and was never fully enacted.

Mizuno’s reforms were often radical and unilateral, earning little support. The failure of the Land Requisition Order proved decisive; in 1843, Mizuno was dismissed, bringing the Tenpō Reforms to an end.

 

Timeline of Mid-Edo Period

1702 AD	The Akō rōnin avenge their lord by killing Kira Yoshinaka.
1709 AD	Arai Hakuseki is appointed as senior advisor (marks the beginning of the Shōtoku Reforms).
1716 AD	Implementation of the Ashi-taka no sei (System of Supplemental Stipends).
1723 AD	Winter Campaign of the Siege of Osaka
1732 AD	The Kyōhō Famine occurs.
1767 AD	Tanuma Okitsugu becomes soba-yōnin (shogun’s close advisor).
1782 AD	The Tenmei Famine begins.
1787 AD	Matsudaira Sadanobu becomes senior councilor (launch of the Kansei Reforms).
1789 AD	Issuance of the Debt Cancellation Order (Kichienrei).
1790 AD	Establishment of the Ninsoku Yoseba (Laborers' Shelter).
1833 AD	The Tenpō Famine begins.
1837 AD	The Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion occurs.
1841 AD	Launch of the Tenpō Reforms (lasts until 1843).
1841 AD	Dissolution of the kabunakama (merchant guilds).
1842 AD	Issuance of the Tenpō Edict on Provisioning Foreign Ships (Shinsui Kyūyorei).

Facilities where you can learn about Mid-Edo Period

Edo Castle Special Historic Site (Ministry of the Environment Website)
https://www.env.go.jp/garden/kokyogaien/1_intro/his_01.html

Wakayama Castle (Residence of the Kii Branch of the Tokugawa Family)
http://wakayamajo.jp/index.html

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