The Genroku period refers to the era centered on the Genroku years (1688–1704), spanning from the late early Edo period to the beginning of the mid-Edo period, and largely coinciding with the reign of the fifth shogun, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (in office 1680–1709). This was a time in which the economy and culture developed significantly under a stable society free from large-scale warfare.
Tsunayoshi emphasized Confucian ideals and promoted a shift from traditional militaristic governance to civil administration. A symbolic expression of this policy was the Edicts on Compassion for Living Beings. In recent years, these edicts have been reevaluated not merely as misguided laws but as social policies aimed at prohibiting infanticide and protecting the vulnerable. Nevertheless, excessive enforcement caused friction in everyday life among commoners.
Economically, prolonged peace brought stability to agricultural production, while commerce and distribution expanded, leading to the prosperity of major cities such as Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto. The chōnin (townspeople) class rose in economic importance, and consumer culture became increasingly vibrant. In Genroku 8–9 (1695–1696), a currency debasement reduced the gold and silver content of coins, triggering inflation. Even so, economic activity remained vigorous, sustaining the overall prosperity of the period.
Culturally, Genroku culture centered on townspeople reached maturity. Ihara Saikaku realistically depicted the lives and desires of commoners through his ukiyo-zōshi, while Matsuo Bashō elevated haikai poetry to a refined art form. The development of ukiyo-e, represented by Hishikawa Moronobu, and the flourishing of puppet theater (ningyō jōruri) and kabuki—symbolized by Chikamatsu Monzaemon’s The Love Suicides at Sonezaki (first performed in 1703)—were also defining features of this era. In addition, the daimyō garden culture established in the early Edo period continued, contributing to the increasing sophistication of urban culture.
Politically, the shogunate’s finances gradually deteriorated, laying the groundwork for the economic disruptions of the subsequent Hōei and Shōtoku eras. The Akō Incident of 1702 (Genroku 15) and the Genroku Earthquake of 1703 (Genroku 16) are well known as events that had a profound impact on contemporary society.
Overall, the Genroku period stands out in Japanese history as a remarkable era in which economic prosperity fostered the maturation of townspeople culture and the refinement of urban life.
The “Shōtoku Reforms,” carried out during the reigns of Tokugawa Ienobu and Tokugawa Ietsugu, were political reforms aimed at rebuilding the shogunate’s finances and improving relations with the imperial court. These policies, led primarily by Arai Hakuseki, are especially associated with the Shōtoku era (1711–1716) and are regarded as an important turning point in efforts to stabilize the Edo bakufu system.
Because the fifth shogun, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, left no mature direct heir, Tokugawa Ienobu, then lord of Kōfu Domain, became the sixth shogun in Hōei 6 (1709). After Ienobu’s death, his son Ietsugu succeeded him as the seventh shogun. Since Ietsugu was still a child, Arai Hakuseki and Manabe Akifusa effectively directed bakufu affairs on his behalf. The reforms began under Ienobu with Hakuseki playing a central role, and this policy direction continued into Ietsugu’s reign, though Hakuseki’s influence gradually declined in its later stages.
The main policies of the Shōtoku Reforms can be summarized in three points:
Improvement of relations with the imperial court
Hakuseki sought to repair relations between the court and the shogunate, which had been strained since the Purple Robe Incident. In Hōei 7 (1710), the Kan’in-no-miya branch of the imperial family was established. This measure created a collateral imperial line to support the stability of succession, thereby contributing to more stable court–bakufu relations.
Reform of the monetary system
Currency debasement during the Genroku period had reduced the quality of gold and silver coins and accelerated inflation. In Shōtoku 5 (1715), Hakuseki implemented a recoinage that increased precious metal content in an effort to restore monetary value. However, this policy also produced side effects, including a sharp fall in prices.
Revision of the reception of Korean embassies
To curb the excessive expenses associated with hosting Joseon diplomatic missions to Japan, ceremonial procedures and treatment were streamlined, preserving diplomatic formality while reducing fiscal burdens. This aimed to balance stable foreign relations with cost containment.
In this way, the Shōtoku Reforms sought to reconstruct finances, diplomacy, and relations with the imperial court under the principles of civil governance. However, they came to an end without achieving sufficient results due to Ietsugu’s early death and Arai Hakuseki’s withdrawal from political life.
The Kyōhō Reforms were a series of bakufu administrative reforms carried out by the eighth shogun, Tokugawa Yoshimune, during his tenure from his accession in 1716 until his retirement in 1745, with their core concentrated in the Kyōhō era (1716–1736). These reforms were implemented with the aims of reconstructing shogunal finances and reasserting bakufu authority, and they are regarded as a major political turning point in the mid-Edo period.
To begin with, Yoshimune introduced various measures to restore fiscal stability. Under the agemai (rice contribution) system, initiated in Kyōhō 7 (1722), daimyō were required to contribute 100 koku of rice for every 10,000 koku of their assessed domain income. In return, their obligatory residence in Edo under the sankin kōtai system was shortened from one year to six months. Through this policy, the bakufu secured approximately 260,000 koku of rice annually, strengthening its financial base. However, some historians have noted that this measure may have had counterproductive effects on the control of the daimyō.
Reforms were also made to the land tax system. In some regions, tax rates were raised. Around Kyōhō 7 (1722), the jōmenhō (fixed-tax system) was introduced, replacing the kenmihō, which assessed taxes based on annual inspections, with a system based on past average harvests. This change was intended to reduce instability for both peasants and officials. In addition, Izawa Yasobei, appointed Goshinden bugyō from Kii Domain, was placed in charge of promoting nationwide land reclamation projects, encouraging the development of new fields through townspeople capital.
In personnel policy, Yoshimune introduced the taritsuke no sei (ashi-daka system), enabling capable individuals to be promoted regardless of hereditary status. As a result, figures such as Tanaka Kyūgu, who rose from foot soldier status, were able to submit policy proposals to the bakufu and influence agricultural administration.
As part of his social policies, Yoshimune established a suggestion box (meyasubako) in front of the Hyōjōsho in Kyōhō 6 (1721) to incorporate popular opinion into governance. In Kanpō 2 (1742), the legal code Kujikata Osadamegaki was compiled, providing standardized guidelines for judicial decisions and advancing legal institutionalization. Furthermore, the aitaisumashi-rei was promulgated, requiring hatamoto and gokenin to resolve their debts independently, without bakufu intervention.
In agricultural policy, Yoshimune appointed Aoki Kon’yō to promote the cultivation of sweet potatoes, strengthening preparedness against famine. At the same time, the cultivation of commercial crops such as cotton, rapeseed, and indigo was encouraged, contributing to the revitalization of the rural economy.
Overall, the Kyōhō Reforms achieved measurable results: bakufu revenues increased substantially, reaching a relatively high level for the period, and rice prices showed a degree of stabilization. On the other hand, higher land taxes increased the burden on peasants, leading to frequent peasant uprisings across the country. Moreover, during the Kyōhō Great Famine of 1732, a major weakness of the fixed-tax system became evident, as it made tax reductions difficult in years of poor harvest.
The Kyōhō Reforms are counted as one of the “Three Great Reforms of the Tokugawa Shogunate,” alongside the Kansei and Tenpō Reforms. Although Yoshimune’s policies achieved partial success in rebuilding the bakufu, they did not resolve the fundamental structural problems of the bakuhan system. Nevertheless, the reforms hold significant historical importance, particularly in their encouragement of townspeople capital in land reclamation projects, which signaled the emergence of new social dynamics.
Tanuma Okitsugu rose from chamberlain (sobayōnin) to senior councilor (rōjū) under the tenth shogun, Tokugawa Ieharu, and came to dominate bakufu politics in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Whereas the shogunate’s finances had traditionally depended primarily on agricultural revenue—namely land taxes paid in rice—Tanuma recognized the limitations of this system and sought fiscal reconstruction through economic policies that emphasized domestic commercial activity. His administration was innovative in that it marked a departure from agrarian-centered policy and attempted to incorporate commerce more actively into state finance.
Tanuma first pursued economic measures that placed strong emphasis on guild-based commerce. A representative example was the official recognition of kabu nakama (licensed merchant guilds). These guilds granted business privileges to merchants in specific trades, and in return the bakufu collected fees such as unjōkin and myōgakin, thereby securing stable sources of revenue. From the An’ei era onward, the government also promoted a shift from silver valued by weight to denominational silver coinage, such as the Nanryō nishū gin, in order to facilitate smoother monetary circulation within the domestic economy.
Tanuma also worked to expand overseas exchange through Nagasaki, encouraging the export of tawaramono (export commodities such as dried abalone, shark fin, and dried sardines). In economic relations with China, he sought to correct the trade imbalance by replacing part of monetary settlement with in-kind exports, including copper coins and tawaramono, thereby attempting to curb the outflow of gold and silver. In Ezochi (present-day Hokkaidō), he established the Tawaramono Moto-yakusho in Tenmei 5 (1785) and developed a system of direct shipment from production areas, linking regional development with the promotion of external commerce.
However, Tanuma’s administration did not proceed smoothly. His close ties with merchants and preferential treatment of guilds were criticized as “money politics,” provoking opposition from anti-Tanuma figures such as Matsudaira Sadanobu, who later became senior councilor. Moreover, a series of disasters—including the Tenmei Famine beginning in 1782 and the eruption of Mount Asama in 1783—triggered widespread peasant uprisings. Amid these circumstances, Tokugawa Ieharu died in 1786, the anti-Tanuma faction gained ascendancy, and Tanuma was dismissed from his post as rōjū later that year.
Tanuma’s policies were long viewed negatively by contemporaries and later conservative commentators as corrupt, bribery-driven politics. In recent scholarship, however, his measures have been reassessed as pioneering efforts toward systematic economic reform in early modern Japan, with renewed attention to their mercantilist character. In particular, the introduction of denominational silver coinage, attempts to correct the trade imbalance with China, and efforts to restrain the outflow of precious metals are now regarded as advanced initiatives for their time.
Thus, Tanuma Okitsugu’s administration aimed at a structural transformation of bakufu finance through the active incorporation of commercial activity. Although it ended after a relatively short period, his policies exerted lasting influence on late Edo economic thought and the direction of shogunal governance, giving them significant historical importance.
The Kansei Reforms were a series of bakufu administrative reforms led by Matsudaira Sadanobu, chief senior councilor (rōjū shuza), from Tenmei 7 (1787) to Kansei 5 (1793). The aim of these reforms was to reverse the mercantilist policies of the previous senior councilor, Tanuma Okitsugu, and to restore rural communities and reestablish shogunal authority. Their guiding principles centered on frugality and the enforcement of discipline, taking Tokugawa Yoshimune’s Kyōhō Reforms as a model.
1) Fiscal Reconstruction and Austerity Policies
The bakufu issued sumptuary laws, calling for simplified living standards among all classes, from samurai to townspeople. In Kansei 1 (1789), the kienrei (Debt Cancellation Edict) exempted hatamoto and gokenin from repayment of the principal on debts incurred before that year and suspended interest payments. Although intended to help restore their livelihoods, this measure caused serious financial difficulties for moneylenders (fudasashi), who had served as creditors, and ultimately damaged the shogunate’s credibility. In Kansei 2 (1790), the shichibutsumi savings system was introduced through town offices (machi kaisho) as a form of urban poor relief.
2) Rural Reconstruction Policies
Under the kyūri kinōrei (Return-to-the-Village Edict) of 1790, peasants who had migrated to cities were encouraged to return to their home villages, with travel funds provided. However, the requirement of guarantors limited its effectiveness. As famine countermeasures, domains were ordered to strengthen existing rice reserve systems (kakoi-mai), and community granaries (shasō and giso) were reorganized.
3) Urban Social Policies
In 1790, a labor training facility (ninsoku yoseba) was established at Ishikawajima in Edo to house vagrants and provide vocational training. To curb rising rice prices, relief rice supplies were distributed through town offices, aiming to stabilize urban living conditions.
4) Ideological Control
The Kansei Prohibition of Heterodox Studies (1790) excluded teachings other than Neo-Confucianism (Zhu Xi school) from the Shōheizaka Academy, seeking to standardize official bakufu ideology. In addition, the Publication Control Edict of 1791 restricted entertainment-oriented printed materials.
5) Policy Contradictions and Limitations
While commerce was officially downplayed, the bakufu in practice continued to rely on designated merchants serving the Finance Office, making it impossible to completely repudiate Tanuma-era policies. The return-to-farming measures also ignored the higher earning potential of urban labor and thus proved largely ineffective. The prohibition of heterodox studies imposed constraints on intellectual diversity.
Historical Assessment
In recent scholarship, Sadanobu’s reorganization of granary systems and the establishment of labor facilities have received renewed recognition as early forms of social policy. At the same time, critics point out that excessive austerity dampened consumer activity and failed to bring about structural reform of bakufu finances. Sadanobu also undertook surveys of Ezochi and strengthened coastal defenses, influencing later shogunal policy. Overall, while the Kansei Reforms aimed at moral discipline and rural recovery, their results remained limited due to a growing gap between ideological goals and social realities.
Tokugawa Ienari, the eleventh shogun, assumed office in Kansei 1 (1789). Even after relinquishing the shogunate to his son Ieyoshi in Tenpō 8 (1837) and formally retiring, he continued to exercise real political power as Ōgosho (retired shogun). The period during which he remained at the center of bakufu politics until his death in Tenpō 12 (1841) is known as the Period of Retired Shogunal Rule.
This era includes the Bunka–Bunsei period (1804–1830), during which townspeople culture—also called Kasei culture—flourished, particularly in Edo. Arts such as ukiyo-e, kabuki, and haikai poetry prospered, and the everyday lives and leisure activities of commoners became increasingly enriched.
At the same time, however, the shogunate’s finances deteriorated and political discipline weakened. Ienari and his close retainers led extravagant lifestyles, and disorder in bakufu administration became increasingly apparent. From around Tenpō 4 (1833), the Tenpō Great Famine continued for several years, and in Tenpō 8 (1837) Ōshio Heihachirō’s Rebellion broke out. These events triggered widespread social unrest and peasant uprisings, undermining the stability of shogunal rule. Moreover, the growing appearance of foreign vessels along Japan’s coasts intensified diplomatic concerns and prompted efforts to strengthen coastal defenses.
With Ienari’s death in Tenpō 12 (1841), the Period of Retired Shogunal Rule came to an end, and the bakufu moved toward a renewed phase of strict control, exemplified by Mizuno Tadakuni’s Tenpō Reforms. While townspeople culture reached new heights during this period, it was also marked by worsening shogunal finances, political disorder, and mounting social instability, signaling the beginning of the decline of the Edo shogunate.
Amid rising social unrest caused by the Tenpō Great Famine, which began around Tenpō 4 (1833), and Ōshio Heihachirō’s Rebellion in Tenpō 8 (1837), Mizuno Tadakuni assumed the position of chief senior councilor (rōjū shuza) in Tenpō 12 (1841) under the reign of Tokugawa Ieyoshi. Seeking to restore shogunal authority and rebuild social order, Mizuno took control of bakufu policy and carried out the Tenpō Reforms between Tenpō 12 and 14 (1841–1843).
Mizuno Tadakuni first strengthened austerity regulations aimed at curbing extravagance among samurai and townspeople alike. He also tightened public morals by imposing controls on theaters and relocating licensed pleasure quarters.
In addition, in Tenpō 13 (1842), he issued the edict dissolving the kabu nakama (merchant guilds) in an effort to stabilize prices by abolishing commercial monopolies and promoting free competition. However, this policy disrupted distribution networks and instead led to greater price instability.
Furthermore, in an attempt to strengthen bakufu control, Mizuno promulgated the agechi-rei (land confiscation edict), which sought to place daimyō territories around Edo and Osaka under direct shogunal administration. This measure provoked strong opposition from the daimyō and ultimately failed in its implementation.
These radical policies failed to gain broad support, and the collapse of the agechi-rei proved decisive. Mizuno Tadakuni was dismissed from his post as senior councilor in Tenpō 14 (1843). As a result, the Tenpō Reforms came to an end after only a short period, and efforts to rebuild the bakufu achieved limited success.
The Tenpō Reforms were the last full-scale attempt to restore the shogunate, but their failure further undermined bakufu authority and accelerated the momentum toward the upheavals of the late Edo period.
| 1680 | Tokugawa Tsunayoshi becomes the fifth shogun |
| 1685 | Enforcement of the Edicts on Compassion for Living Beings intensifies |
| 1701 | Asano Naganori attacks Kira Yoshinaka in the Matsu no Ōrōka (Pine Corridor) of Edo Castle (Genroku 14) |
| 1702 | The Akō rōnin raid Kira Yoshinaka’s residence and kill him (Genroku 15) |
| 1709 | Tokugawa Ienobu becomes the sixth shogun (Hōei 6 / Shōtoku 1) |
| 1716 | Tokugawa Yoshimune becomes the eighth shogun; the Kyōhō Reforms begin |
| 1721 | Establishment of the suggestion box (meyasubako) (Kyōhō 6) |
| 1723 | Introduction of the rice contribution system (agemai) and the merit-based stipend system (ashi-daka) (Kyōhō 8) |
| 1732 | The Kyōhō Great Famine |
| 1767 | Tanuma Okitsugu rises to prominence as chamberlain (sobayōnin) (Meiwa 4) |
| 1787 | Matsudaira Sadanobu becomes chief senior councilor; the Kansei Reforms begin (Tenmei 7) |
| 1789 | Issuance of the Debt Cancellation Edict (kinenrei) (Kansei 1) |
| 1790 | Establishment of labor facilities (ninsoku yoseba) and promulgation of the Return-to-the-Village Edict |
| 1833 | Beginning of the Tenpō Great Famine (Tenpō 4) |
| 1837 | Ōshio Heihachirō’s Rebellion (Tenpō 8) |
| 1841 | Start of the Tenpō Reforms; Mizuno Tadakuni becomes chief senior councilor (Tenpō 12) |
| 1842 | Edict dissolving the merchant guilds (kabu nakama) (Tenpō 13) |
| 1842 | Tenpō Firewood and Water Supply Edict (Tenpō 13) |
Edo Castle Special Historic Site (Ministry of the Environment Website)
https://www.env.go.jp/garden/kokyogaien/english/index.html
Wakayama Castle (Residence of the Kii Branch of the Tokugawa Family)
http://wakayamajo.jp/index.html
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