Japanese History Digest

Mid-Edo Period

Genroku Period (Tsunayoshi)

The Genroku period refers to the period centered on the Genroku era (1688-1704) in the mid-Edo period, overlapping with the reign of the fifth shogun, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1680-1709). Recent research has reevaluated the Edict for Compassionate Living Things, traditionally considered an "evil law," as a social policy that sought to shift away from the military rule of the Sengoku period. Its humanitarian elements, such as the prohibition on abandoning children and the protection of the vulnerable, have particularly garnered attention.

Economically, the long-term peace under the Tokugawa shogunate led to improved agricultural production and expanded commercial distribution. The development of cities centered on Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto led to the economic and cultural rise of the townspeople. While the Genroku period's currency recoinage (circa 1695) led to inflation, the relative stability of rice prices and the circulation of gold and silver supported overall economic prosperity.

In the cultural sphere, Ihara Saikaku realistically depicted the lives of townspeople in his ukiyo-zoshi, and Matsuo Basho elevated haiku poetry to the level of art. The establishment of ukiyo-e, as exemplified by Hishikawa Moronobu's "Mikaeri Bijin-zu," and the performance of Chikamatsu Monzaemon's "Sonezaki Shinju" (The Love Suicides at Sonezaki) (first performed in 1703) are symbolic examples of the maturity of Genroku culture. The development of Koishikawa Korakuen Garden, the Mito domain's main residence, is an example of the landscaping culture of this period.

In politics, the excessive application of the Edict for Compassion for Living Things caused friction in the lives of ordinary people. Furthermore, the deterioration of the shogunate's finances became apparent in the latter half of the Genroku period, and signs of the economic turmoil of the Hoei period appeared. In terms of natural disasters, the Genroku earthquake of 1703 (Genroku 16) caused extensive damage to the Kanto region. In terms of incidents, the Ako Incident of 1702 (Genroku 15) is particularly notable, and the details of that incident had a major influence on later artistic works.

Generally, the Genroku period was characterized by economic prosperity and the maturation of townspeople culture, and occupies an important position as the source of modern Japanese culture. It is a particularly noteworthy period in Japanese history for the refinement of the lifestyles and culture of urban dwellers.

 

The Shotoku Reign (Ienobu and Ietsugu)

The Shotoku Reign, carried out during the reigns of Tokugawa Ienobu and Tokugawa Ietsugu, was a political reform aimed at rebuilding the shogunate's finances and improving relations with the Imperial Court. It was notable for the policies led by Arai Hakuseki. This reign is regarded as a crucial period in stabilizing the Edo Shogunate.

As the fifth shogun, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, had no heir, his adopted son, Ienobu, became the sixth shogun. Ienobu's son, Ietsugu, subsequently became the seventh shogun, and Arai Hakuseki assisted in the shogunate's administration throughout both of their reigns. Leveraging his knowledge and ideals as a Confucian scholar, Hakuseki implemented wide-ranging reforms in politics, economics, and diplomacy.

The three main policies of the Shotoku Reign were as follows:

1) Improving Relations with the Imperial Court
In 1710 (the 7th year of the Hoei era), Arai Hakuseki founded the Kan'innomiya family to repair relations with the Imperial Court, which had been tense for some time since the Purple Robe Incident. This was done to demonstrate consideration for the Imperial Court by establishing a new branch of the Imperial family and to stabilize relations between the Imperial Court and the Shogunate.

2) Reform of the Monetary System
The Genroku gold and silver coins issued during the Genroku period had a low content, leading to rising prices. Arai Hakuseki changed this and minted Shotoku gold and silver coins, which had the same content as the Keicho gold and silver coins of Ieyasu's reign. This reform stabilized the value of currency and strengthened the economic foundation.

3) Simplification of Treatment for Korean Envoys
Traditionally, entertaining Korean envoys had been extremely expensive. By simplifying treatment, Hakuseki reduced expenses and lightened the financial burden. This policy was of great significance as a measure to rebuild the shogunate's finances.

 

Kyoho Reforms (Yoshimune)

The Kyoho Reforms were a series of shogunate reforms implemented by the eighth shogun, Tokugawa Yoshimune, from his accession in 1716 until his retirement in 1745. The core of these reforms was the Kyoho era (1716-1736). These reforms were implemented with the aim of rebuilding the shogunate's finances and reestablishing its authority, marking a significant political turning point in the mid-Edo period.

First, Yoshimune implemented various measures to rebuild the shogunate's finances. The Jomai system, introduced in 1722, required daimyo to pay 100 koku of rice per 10,000 koku of rice, in exchange for shortening the period of stay in Edo for sankin-kotai (alternate attendance) from one year to six months. This secured the shogunate approximately 180,000 koku of rice per year and strengthened its financial base. However, some have pointed out that this policy was counterproductive in terms of controlling the daimyo.

The tax system was also reformed. In many regions, tax burdens were effectively raised to a level described as "five for the government, five for the people." He also attempted to rectify the precarious situation for both farmers and officials by adopting the Jomen method, based on past average harvest yields, in some areas and promoting a shift from the Kenmi method to the Jomen method. Furthermore, he appointed Izawa Yasobei, an engineer from the Kishu domain, and promoted the nationwide development of new fields using townspeople's capital.

In terms of personnel recruitment, he introduced the Tashitaka system, creating a system for promoting talented individuals regardless of their family status. This system led to the emergence of individuals like Tanaka Kyugu, a village headman, who submitted written opinions to the shogunate and influenced agricultural policy.

As a social policy, a suggestion box was installed in front of the Council of State in 1721 to reflect the opinions of the common people in policy. Furthermore, in 1742, the Kojikata Osadamegaki, a legal code that served as the standard for trials, was compiled, furthering the development of laws. Furthermore, the Sotoisashirei (Order for Settlement of Debts) was issued, leaving the debt problems of hatamoto and gokenin to be resolved on their own.

In terms of agricultural policy, Aoki Konyo was appointed to encourage the cultivation of sweet potatoes and strengthen famine preparedness. At the same time, the cultivation of commercial crops such as cotton, rapeseed, and indigo was encouraged, revitalizing the rural economy.

The Kyoho Reforms thus achieved some success, with the shogunate's revenue reaching its highest level of the Edo period and rice prices stabilizing. However, increases in tax levies increased the burden on farmers, and peasant uprisings became frequent throughout the country. Furthermore, the Great Kyoho Famine of 1732 exposed the drawback of the tax exemption system, which made it difficult to implement tax reductions during poor harvests in areas that had adopted the tax exemption system.

The Kyoho Reforms, along with the later Kansei and Tenpo Reforms, are considered one of the "Three Great Reforms of the Shogunate." While Tokugawa Yoshimune's reforms achieved some success in rebuilding the shogunate, they failed to resolve the fundamental problems plaguing the feudal domain system. However, it does have important historical significance in that it showed the beginnings of a new social structure, such as the utilization of townspeople's capital in the development of new fields.

 

The Politics of Tanuma Okitsugu (Tanuma Politics)

Tanuma Okitsugu, who rose from chamberlain to the 10th shogun, Tokugawa Ieharu, to the rank of elder statesman, led the shogunate government in the late 18th century. Until then, the shogunate's finances had relied primarily on agricultural income, i.e., rice tax payments. However, Tanuma recognized this limitation and sought to restructure the government through a commerce-based economic policy. His policies were groundbreaking in that they attempted to move away from the traditional agrarian approach and toward mercantilist policies.

First, Tanuma implemented an economic policy that emphasized commerce. One notable example was the official recognition of stock associations. Stock associations were a system that granted exclusive business rights to merchants in specific industries, allowing the shogunate to secure stable tax revenues such as "unjokin" (transfer money) and "myougakin" (received tax). Furthermore, as part of a monetary reform, he promoted the shift from the traditional weighted silver coins to counted silver coins, improving the efficiency of currency circulation.

Tanuma also worked to expand trade with Nagasaki. In particular, he encouraged the export of dried abalone, shark fin, dried small sardines, and other products in bales, achieving an export surplus in trade with China and working to curb the outflow of gold and silver. He also maintained domestic reserves of precious metals by shifting the means of payment from silver to copper and bales. Furthermore, in Ezo (Hokkaido), he established a bales-related office in 1785 and established a system for direct delivery from production areas, linking regional development with trade promotion.

However, Tanuma's administration was not always smooth sailing. His collusion with merchants and preferential treatment of stock associations were criticized as "money politics," and he was particularly harshly criticized by Matsudaira Sadanobu, who would later become a senior councilor. Furthermore, a series of natural disasters, such as the Tenmei famine that began in 1782 and the eruption of Mount Asama in 1783, led to frequent peasant uprisings throughout the country. In addition to these difficulties, the death of Tokugawa Ieharu in 1786 led to the rise of anti-Tanuma factions, and Tanuma was dismissed from his position as Roju that same year.

Tanuma's policies have often been criticized as "bribery politics" by the public at the time and by later conservatives. However, recent research has positioned Tanuma's series of policies as the first economic reforms in early modern Japan, and their pioneering mercantilist nature has been reevaluated. In particular, the introduction of silver coins with a count, the export surplus in trade with China, and the curbing of gold and silver outflows are considered extremely advanced initiatives for the time.

Tanuma Okitsugu's policies thus forced a fundamental transformation of the shogunate's financial structure. Although ultimately short-lived, his mercantilist ideas and policies have great historical significance, as they had a major impact on economic thinking and the nature of shogunate government in the late Edo period.

 

Kansei Reforms (Matsudaira Sadanobu)

The Kansei Reforms were a series of shogunate reforms led by the senior councilor Matsudaira Sadanobu from 1787 to 1793. The reforms aimed to shift away from the mercantilist policies of his predecessor, the senior councilor Tanuma Okitsugu, and to revitalize rural areas and reestablish the authority of the shogunate. The basic principles of the reforms were based on frugality and discipline, modeled after Tokugawa Yoshimune's "Kyoho Reforms."

1) Financial Reconstruction and Austerity Measures
The shogunate issued a ban on luxury, calling for simplification of lifestyles for everyone, from samurai to townspeople. Next, it issued the "Kikenrei" (Reiwa Edict) (1789), ordering the cancellation of debts incurred by hatamoto and gokenin (direct retainers) prior to 1784. While this was intended to help these people rebuild their lives, it also caused financial difficulties for the financial institutions that had been lending to them, resulting in a significant loss of credibility for the shogunate. He also introduced a seven-tenths savings system as a measure to alleviate the urban poor.

2) Rural Revitalization Policy
The Old Return to Farming Order (1790), which sought to return peasants who had migrated to cities to their hometowns, provided funds for them to return to their farms, but the need for personal guarantees meant its effectiveness was limited. Furthermore, as a measure to combat famine, he introduced a rice enclosure system for feudal domains, and redeveloped company and government storehouses.

3) Urban Social Policy
In 1790, a labor camp was established on Ishikawajima in Edo to house homeless people and provide vocational training. Furthermore, town halls were established in Edo as part of rice price controls.

4) Thought Control
The 1790 Kansei Prohibition of Heterodox Learnings banned all teachings other than those of Neo-Confucianism, aiming to unify thought. Furthermore, the Publication Control Order of 1791 restricted entertainment publications.

5) Policy Contradictions and Limitations
While Sadanobu downplayed commerce, he was forced to rely on merchants who supplied the accounting office, preventing him from completely overturning the policies of the Tanuma era. The policy of encouraging people to return to farming also ignored the high returns of urban labor and was ineffective. The prohibition of heterodox learning placed some constraints on academic diversity.

[Historical Evaluation]
In recent years, the reorganization of Rice stockpiling system(In preparation for famine, feudal lords were ordered to stockpile rice) and the social policy of labor camps have come to be highly praised. However, excessive austerity measures have been criticized for dampening the consumer economy and failing to reform the fiscal structure itself, which has been pointed out as a limitation. Sadanobu also conducted surveys of Ezo and strengthened coastal defenses, which had an impact on future shogunate administration. Thus, the Kansei Reforms aimed to tighten moral standards and revitalize rural areas, but their divergence from reality meant that their success was limited.

 

The Ogosho Era and the Oshio Heihachiro Rebellion

The period during which the eleventh shogun, Tokugawa Ienari, held real power is known as the Ogosho Era. Ienari became shogun in 1787 and retired in 1837, handing over the position to his son, Ienari. However, he continued to wield real power as "Ogosho" and remained at the center of politics until his death in 1841.

This period, also known as the Bunka-Bunsei period (1804-1830) or the Kasei period, saw a great development of townspeople culture, centered around Edo. Arts such as ukiyo-e, kabuki, and haiku flourished, and the lives and entertainment of the common people became more prosperous.

At the same time, the shogunate's finances deteriorated and political tensions eased. Ienari and his entourage lived luxurious lifestyles, and the turmoil in the shogunate's administration became more apparent. Additionally, from around 1833 onwards, there were frequent social unrest and uprisings, such as the Tenpo Famine that lasted for several years and the Oshio Heihachiro Rebellion (1837), which put the shogunate's system of control under strain. Furthermore, with the arrival of an increasing number of foreign ships, diplomatic issues also began to surface under the closed-door policy.

The Ogosho era came to an end with the death of Ienari in 1841, and the shogunate once again transitioned to an era of stricter control, such as the Tenpo Reforms led by Mizuno Tadakuni. While townspeople culture flourished during the Ogosho era, the shogunate's finances and politics also became unstable, and social unrest worsened, marking the beginning of the decline of the Edo shogunate.

 

The Tenpo Reforms

In the first half of the 19th century, amid growing public discontent, including the Tenpo Famine and the Oshio Heihachiro Rebellion, the death of Shogun Tokugawa Ienari (1841) prompted senior councilor Mizuno Tadakuni to seize control of the shogunate. Aiming to restore the shogunate's authority and restore social order, Tadakuni embarked on a series of reforms known as the Tenpo Reforms (1841-1843).

First, Mizuno Tadakuni strengthened the thrift edict to discourage extravagant lifestyles and imposed strict restrictions on the lives and entertainment of ordinary people. He also implemented measures such as cracking down on theaters and relocating brothels.

Next, with the aim of stabilizing prices, he dissolved the stock associations, which had granted special privileges to merchants, and attempted to normalize the market through free competition. However, this policy has been criticized for causing confusion in commercial distribution and contributing to price instability.

Furthermore, in order to strengthen the shogunate's control, the shogunate issued the Confiscation Order, which aimed to bring the territories of daimyo and hatamoto around Edo and Osaka under the shogunate's direct control. However, this provoked strong opposition from the daimyo, and was not widely implemented.

Mizuno Tadakuni's reforms were largely radical and unilateral, and so failed to garner widespread support. The failure of the Confiscation Order in particular was so decisive that Tadakuni was dismissed from his position as senior councilor in 1843, bringing the Tenpo Reforms to an end.

 

Timeline of Mid-Edo Period

1702 AD	The Akō rōnin avenge their lord by killing Kira Yoshinaka.
1709 AD	Arai Hakuseki is appointed as senior advisor (marks the beginning of the Shōtoku Reforms).
1716 AD	Implementation of the Ashi-taka no sei (System of Supplemental Stipends).
1723 AD	Winter Campaign of the Siege of Osaka
1732 AD	The Kyōhō Famine occurs.
1767 AD	Tanuma Okitsugu becomes soba-yōnin (shogun’s close advisor).
1782 AD	The Tenmei Famine begins.
1787 AD	Matsudaira Sadanobu becomes senior councilor (launch of the Kansei Reforms).
1789 AD	Issuance of the Debt Cancellation Order (Kichienrei).
1790 AD	Establishment of the Ninsoku Yoseba (Laborers' Shelter).
1833 AD	The Tenpō Famine begins.
1837 AD	The Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion occurs.
1841 AD	Launch of the Tenpō Reforms (lasts until 1843).
1841 AD	Dissolution of the kabunakama (merchant guilds).
1842 AD	Issuance of the Tenpō Edict on Provisioning Foreign Ships (Shinsui Kyūyorei).

Facilities where you can learn about Mid-Edo Period

Edo Castle Special Historic Site (Ministry of the Environment Website)
https://www.env.go.jp/garden/kokyogaien/1_intro/his_01.html

Wakayama Castle (Residence of the Kii Branch of the Tokugawa Family)
http://wakayamajo.jp/index.html

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