Japanese History Digest
The Kamakura Period
The Establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate
In 1180, Prince Mochihito, a son of Emperor Go-Shirakawa who was dissatisfied with the Taira clan’s autocratic rule, issued an order (the "Prince Mochihito's Order") calling for the overthrow of the Taira. He allied with Minamoto no Yorimasa, a warrior based in the Kinai region, and raised an army. Although this attempt was discovered early and failed, Minamoto no Yoritomo in Izu and Kiso Yoshinaka in Shinano also took up arms, marking the beginning of the Genpei War.
Minamoto no Yoritomo consolidated control over the dissatisfied eastern provinces and laid the foundation for the shogunate with Kamakura as its base. In 1181, after the death of Taira no Kiyomori, the Taira's power declined. In 1185, they were defeated at the Battle of Dan-no-ura, leading to their downfall. In 1189, Yoritomo destroyed the Northern Fujiwara clan in Oshu, who had sheltered his rival Yoshitsune, and thus established military control over the entire country. In 1192, following the death of Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa, Yoritomo was appointed Seii Taishogun (Barbarian-Subduing Generalissimo), formally establishing the Kamakura Shogunate.
Politics of the Kamakura Shogunate
The Kamakura Shogunate was based on a lord-vassal relationship between the shogun and his vassals (gokenin). The shogun granted land rights and appointed vassals as military governors (shugo) and estate stewards (jitō) in return for their loyalty and service. This mutual obligation was known as the system of on (reward) and hōkō (service). In return for rewards, the gokenin performed military duties and protected the capital (Kyoto) and Kamakura when necessary.
To support these functions, the shogunate established several administrative institutions: the Samurai-dokoro in 1180 to manage the gokenin and handle criminal matters; the Monchūjo in 1184 to oversee legal disputes, especially those concerning land rights; and the Kumonjo in 1191 to handle official documents and administrative affairs.
The Rule of the Shikken (Regent Government)
In 1199, after the death of Yoritomo, power gradually shifted from the shogun to a council of powerful gokenin. Among them, Hōjō Tokimasa—Yoritomo’s father-in-law—rose to prominence. He deposed the second shogun Yoriie, installed the third shogun Sanetomo, and assumed real power as shikken (regent), the head of the Mandokoro (Administrative Office).
In 1219, Sanetomo was assassinated at Tsurugaoka Hachimangū by his nephew Kugyō. This instability prompted Retired Emperor Go-Toba to raise an army against the shogunate in 1221. However, the eastern gokenin remained loyal to the shogunate, and Go-Toba’s forces were defeated in what became known as the Jōkyū Disturbance. As a result, the retired emperors Go-Toba, Tsuchimikado, and Juntoku were exiled. To monitor the court, the shogunate established the Rokuhara Tandai in Kyoto and confiscated about 3,000 estates from the imperial supporters, completing its nationwide control.
During Emperor Saga’s reign, the legal codes were further organized. He compiled the Kōnin Kyaku-Shiki, which consisted of supplementary laws (kyaku) and detailed regulations (shiki) to the ritsuryō system.
The Mongol Invasions and the Shogunate
In the early 13th century, the Mongols under Genghis Khan rose to power in Asia and brought Goryeo (Korea) under their control. In 1274, his grandson Kublai Khan renamed his empire the Yuan Dynasty and demanded tribute from Japan. The Kamakura Shogunate refused, prompting the Yuan army to invade Hakata Bay. The Mongols fought with explosives and coordinated group tactics, overwhelming the Japanese warriors who were used to individual combat. The shogunate forces retreated to Dazaifu, but a storm forced the Yuan army to withdraw—this is known as the Bunei Invasion.
In 1281, the Mongols launched a second invasion (Kōan Invasion), but once again, a storm—combined with resistance from conscripted Goryeo soldiers—led to their failure.
Despite the valiant service of the gokenin during these invasions, the shogunate gained no spoils from the conflict and could not adequately reward its warriors. This led to worsening financial hardship among the gokenin.
The Fall of the Kamakura Shogunate
After the Mongol invasions, many gokenin were left impoverished. Meanwhile, from the mid-13th century, the Hōjō clan’s central authority grew stronger, especially the tokusō line (the head family), which began ruling autocratically. The miuchibito, retainers of the tokusō, gained influence and began to clash with the gokenin.
In the Kinai region, new warrior groups called akutō gained power. They were often connected with temples, the imperial court, or miuchibito, and profited through managing estate tax revenues and high-interest moneylending.
At the imperial court, a dispute over succession and estate control developed between two lines of the imperial family: the Jimyōin line (descendants of Emperor Go-Fukakusa) and the Daikakuji line (descendants of Emperor Kameyama). The shogunate proposed a plan for alternate succession (ryōtōtetsuritsu), but tensions remained.
Amid this turmoil, Emperor Go-Daigo of the Daikakuji line attempted twice to overthrow the shogunate: in the Shōchū Incident of 1324 and the Genkō Incident of 1331. Although these attempts failed, they inspired uprisings by regional warrior monks, akutō, and disaffected gokenin. Go-Daigo’s son Prince Morinaga and the warrior Kusunoki Masashige also raised armies. Ashikaga Takauji, sent to suppress the rebellion, betrayed the shogunate and seized the Rokuhara Tandai in Kyoto. Meanwhile, in the east, Nitta Yoshisada attacked Kamakura. In 1333, the Kamakura Shogunate was overthrown.
Timeline of the Kamakura period
| 1180 AD |
Prince Mochihito issues a decree calling for the overthrow of the Taira clan. Taira no Kiyomori moves the capital to Fukuhara, later returned to Heian-kyō (Kyoto). Minamoto no Yoritomo raises an army. Minamoto no Yoshinaka (Kiso Yoshinaka) raises an army. |
| 1181 AD | Taira no Shigehira sets fire to the temples in Nara (Nanto burning incident). |
| 1184 AD | Yoritomo sends Noriyori and Yoshitsune to defeat Yoshinaka. |
| 1185 AD | The Taira clan is destroyed at the Battle of Dan-no-ura. |
| 1189 AD | The Ōshū Fujiwara clan is destroyed. |
| 1192 AD | Minamoto no Yoritomo is appointed Sei-i Taishōgun (Barbarian-subduing Generalissimo). |
| 1199 AD | Yoritomo dies; his son Yoriie succeeds him, but real power shifts to a council of powerful retainers (gokenin). |
| 1200 AD | Hiki Yoshikazu is eliminated. |
| 1203 AD | Hōjō Tokimasa destroys Hiki Yoshikazu and imprisons Yoriie. |
| 1219 AD | Kugyō assassinates Minamoto no Sanetomo; the shogunate invites Fujiwara no Yoritsune from the regent family (sekkan-ke) to become shōgun (a puppet shōgun). |
| 1221 AD | Establishment of the Rokuhara Tandai (Kyoto branch of the shogunate). Jōkyū War: Retired Emperor Go-Toba issues a decree to overthrow Hōjō Yoshitoki, but is defeated. |
| 1225 AD | Establishment of the offices of rensho (assistant regent) and hyōjōshū (council of state). |
| 1232 AD | Promulgation of the Jōei Shikimoku (also called Goseibai Shikimoku), a legal code. |
| 1247 AD | Hōjō Tokiyori destroys Miura Yasumura (Miura clan rebellion). |
| 1249 AD | Establishment of the hikitsukeshū (judicial council). |
| 1268 AD | Envoys from Kublai Khan arrive; Hōjō Tokimune refuses their demands. |
| 1274 AD | First Mongol invasion (Bunei Campaign). Takezaki Suenaga commissions the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (Illustrated Account of the Mongol Invasions). |
| 1281 AD | Second Mongol invasion (Kōan Campaign). |
| 1285 AD | Shimotsuki Disturbance: conflict between gokenin (hereditary retainers) and miuchibito (inner circle of the Hōjō family). |
| 1297 AD | Einin Tokuseirei (Einin Debt Cancellation Edict) is issued. |
Facilities where you can learn about the Kamakura period
Kotoku-in Temple (Great Buddha of Kamakura)
https://www.kotoku-in.jp/en/
Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine
https://www.hachimangu.or.jp/en/
Kanagawa Prefectural Kanazawa Bunko
https://www.pen-kanagawa.ed.jp/kanazawabunko/index.html
Todai-ji Temple (Head Temple of the Kegon Sect)
https://www.todaiji.or.jp/en/
Engaku-ji Temple (Head Temple of the Rinzai Zen Sect)
https://www.engakuji.or.jp/en/
Kanshin-ji Temple (Mt. Hinokio)
https://www.kanshinji.com/
