Japanese History Digest
Meiji Period
The Meiji Restoration
The Boshin War (1868–1869) was fought between the forces of the former shogunate and the new imperial government. With the victory of the new government, the Meiji Restoration advanced significantly. Particularly symbolic was the bloodless surrender of Edo Castle in 1868, which allowed for a smooth transfer of power from the shogunate to the new government while sparing Edo from wartime devastation. Through these events, the new Meiji government was formally established, marking the beginning of building a modern nation centered on the emperor.
Establishment of a Centralized State
In 1869, the lords returned their lands and subjects to the emperor in the hanseki hōkan (return of lands and registers), and in 1871 the haihan chiken (abolition of domains and establishment of prefectures) concentrated political power in the center. To build a modern fiscal foundation, the Land Tax Reform of 1873 introduced a land tax system, providing the government with stable revenue. At the same time, the policy of promoting industry and encouraging production (shokusan kōgyō) advanced the development of industry and transportation, further strengthening the framework of a centralized state.
Early Meiji Foreign Policy
In 1874, Japan launched the Taiwan Expedition, seeking through diplomacy with Qing China to assert itself among the great powers. With Japan’s growing national strength, debate arose over opening relations with Korea, leading to the Seikanron (Debate on the Conquest of Korea) in 1873. However, the policy was rejected amid fierce disputes within the government, resulting in the Political Crisis of 1873, in which Saigō Takamori and other advocates of the policy resigned. This crisis had a profound impact on domestic politics.
Drafting a Constitution
Calls for political participation grew stronger, and in 1874 the Memorial on the Establishment of a Popularly Elected Assembly was submitted. This marked the beginning of the Freedom and People’s Rights Movement, which sought the opening of a national assembly. At the same time, discontent among the samurai culminated in uprisings, the largest of which was the Satsuma Rebellion (1877). Closely tied to the Freedom and People’s Rights Movement, this conflict significantly influenced the course of modern state-building.
The Freedom and People’s Rights Movement
Responding to popular demands, the government began preparing for constitutional government. In 1885, the cabinet system was introduced as the core of modern political institutions. Under the leadership of Itō Hirobumi, a constitution was drafted with reference to the German (Prussian) model. At the same time, the Imperial Household Law was enacted, laying down the fundamental principles of the emperor-centered state and establishing the framework of governance.
The Imperial Diet
In 1889, the Constitution of the Empire of Japan (Meiji Constitution) was promulgated, and in 1890 the first Imperial Diet was convened. The government upheld the principle of “transcendentalism” (chōzen shugi), maintaining an independent stance not swayed by the Diet or political parties, and basing its authority on the emperor’s prerogatives. Kuroda Kiyotaka, the first prime minister, declared this policy explicitly. Thus began Japan’s experiment in balancing constitutional politics with imperial sovereignty.
The Road to the First Sino-Japanese War
In the late 19th century, Japan’s rivalry with Qing China over Korea intensified. Korea had long been under strong Chinese influence, but Japan, emboldened by its rising international status, sought greater influence there. In 1882, conservative Korean soldiers revolted against Japan, attacking the Japanese legation in Seoul—a conflict known as the Imo Incident. Although Japanese and Chinese troops jointly suppressed the unrest, Korea’s dependency on China was reaffirmed, and Japan’s position weakened. In 1884, pro-Japanese reformers known as the Independence Party attempted a coup (the Gapsin Incident), but it was crushed by Chinese intervention. The failure further diminished Japan’s influence, while China tightened its control. Finally, in 1894, the Donghak Peasant Rebellion triggered simultaneous Japanese and Chinese intervention, escalating into the First Sino-Japanese War.
The First Sino-Japanese War and the Treaty of Shimonoseki
The war highlighted Japan’s modern military superiority. After a string of victories, Japan concluded the Treaty of Shimonoseki with China in 1895. The treaty recognized Korea’s independence, ceded the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan, and the Pescadores Islands to Japan, and required a large indemnity. This elevated Japan into the ranks of the great powers and instilled strong national confidence. However, Russia, Germany, and France forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula in what became known as the Triple Intervention. Although Japan complied, the humiliation fueled resentment among the Japanese people and intensified anti-Russian sentiment.
The Boxer Rebellion and the Advance of the Great Powers
In 1900, the Boxer Uprising in China besieged foreign legations in Beijing. Japan dispatched troops alongside the great powers, playing a major role in suppressing the Boxers and Qing forces. Japan’s rapid and large-scale military response earned international recognition. At the same time, however, Russia expanded its presence in Manchuria and refused to withdraw, making conflict with Japan inevitable.
The Russo-Japanese War and the Treaty of Portsmouth
In 1904, tensions over Korea and Manchuria erupted into the Russo-Japanese War. Japan secured victories in battles such as the Siege of Port Arthur and the Battle of Tsushima, gaining the upper hand. Yet the disparity in national strength made a prolonged war unsustainable. In 1905, with U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt mediating, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed. Japan gained recognition of its dominance over Korea, the leasehold rights to Port Arthur and Dalian, control of the South Manchurian Railway, and the southern half of Sakhalin. However, no indemnity was awarded, leading to public dissatisfaction and mass protests such as the Hibiya Riots.
Timeline of Meiji Period
| 1868 AD | Beginning of the Boshin War; Peaceful surrender of Edo Castle; Charter Oath of Five Articles; Edo renamed Tokyo; Change of era name to Meiji |
| 1869 AD | End of the Boshin War; Return of domains and registers to the Emperor (hanseki hōkan); Relocation of the capital to Tokyo; National unification under the new government |
| 1871 AD | Abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures (haihan-chiken); New Currency Ordinance; Dispatch of the Iwakura Mission; Establishment of the postal system; Treaty of Amity with Qing China signed |
| 1872 AD | Proclamation of the Education System Order (Gakusei); Opening of the railway between Shimbashi and Yokohama; Establishment of the Tomioka Silk Mill |
| 1873 AD | Conscription Ordinance; Land Tax Reform; Political crisis of 1873; Return of the Iwakura Mission |
| 1874 AD | Petition for the Establishment of a Popularly Elected Assembly submitted; Taiwan Expedition |
| 1875 AD | Treaty of St. Petersburg (Sakhalin–Kuril Islands Exchange Treaty); Ganghwa Island Incident |
| 1876 AD | Sword Abolishment Edict (Haitōrei); Treaty of Amity with Korea; Abolition of hereditary stipends (Chitsuroku shobun) |
| 1877 AD | Satsuma Rebellion (last uprising of the former samurai class) |
| 1879 AD | Disposition of the Ryukyu Domain (establishment of Okinawa Prefecture) |
| 1881 AD | Imperial Rescript promising the opening of the National Diet; Formation of the Liberal Party (Jiyūtō) |
| 1882 AD | Formation of the Constitutional Reform Party (Rikken Kaishintō) |
| 1885 AD | Establishment of the Cabinet system (first Prime Minister: Itō Hirobumi) |
| 1889 AD | Promulgation of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan (Meiji Constitution); Enactment of the Imperial House Law |
| 1890 AD | First general election for the House of Representatives; Opening of the First Imperial Diet; Promulgation of the Imperial Rescript on Education |
| 1894 AD | Signing of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation; Outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War |
| 1895 AD | Treaty of Shimonoseki (end of the First Sino-Japanese War) |
| 1897 AD | Commencement of operations at the Yawata Steel Works |
| 1899 AD | Enforcement of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (revision of unequal treaties) |
| 1901 AD | Ashio Copper Mine Pollution Incident becomes a major social issue |
| 1902 AD | Conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance |
| 1904 AD | Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War |
| 1905 AD | End of the Russo-Japanese War; Treaty of Portsmouth; Second Anglo-Japanese Alliance |
| 1906 AD | Establishment of the Residency-General of Korea; Acquisition of southern Sakhalin from Russia |
| 1907 AD | Hague Secret Emissary Incident |
| 1908 AD | Demarcation of the border between Russia and Sakhalin |
| 1909 AD | Assassination of Itō Hirobumi |
| 1910 AD | Annexation of Korea |
| 1911 AD | Recovery of tariff autonomy; Third Anglo-Japanese Alliance |
Facilities where you can learn about Meiji Period
Meiji-Mura Museum (Inuyama City, Aichi Prefecture)
A large open-air museum that preserves and exhibits authentic buildings from the Meiji period. Visitors can experience Important Cultural Properties, industrial heritage, steam locomotives, and other tangible aspects of Meiji culture and technology. The museum offers opportunities to experience daily life and institutions of the Meiji era and to gain a comprehensive understanding of the process of modernization.
https://www.meijimura.com/
Tokyo National Museum (Ueno Park, Taito Ward, Tokyo)
Japan’s oldest and largest museum, featuring art and crafts from the Meiji period onward, materials related to expositions, and exhibits on modernization. Special exhibitions showcase Meiji-era paintings, sculptures, crafts, and works exhibited at the Vienna World’s Fair, allowing visitors to grasp the cultural transformations of modern Japan.
https://www.tnm.jp/
Bakumatsu-Meiji Restoration Museum – Ryozen History Museum (Kyoto City)
A museum specializing in the transitional period from the late Edo period to the Meiji Restoration. Through valuable materials related to figures such as the Shinsengumi and Sakamoto Ryōma, as well as reconstructed dioramas of key incidents, visitors can vividly experience the atmosphere of the Meiji Restoration.
https://www.ryozen-museum.or.jp/
National Museum of Japanese History (Sakura City, Chiba Prefecture)
A comprehensive museum presenting Japan’s history and folk culture, with extensive collections on Meiji society, industry, and modernization. The museum also hosts special exhibitions and hands-on events, making it a learning place for both children and adults.
https://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/
Meiji University Museum (Chiyoda Ward, Tokyo)
Exhibits focus on law, modernization, daily life, and culture during the Meiji period. Open to both students and the general public, the museum provides resources and displays that illustrate the transformations of modern Japanese industry and society.
https://www.meiji.ac.jp/museum/
