Japanese History Digest

Meiji Period

Meiji Restoration

The Boshin War (1868-1869) of 1868 (the first year of the Meiji era) was a civil war between the forces of the former shogunate and the new government. The victory of the new government forces facilitated the establishment of a new national system centered on the Emperor. The bloodless surrender of Edo Castle was particularly symbolic, as it enabled a peaceful transition from the old to the new government while preventing war damage in the city. Thus, the Meiji Government was officially established, and the construction of a modern nation-state began in earnest.

 

Establishment of a Centralized State

In 1869, the feudal domains and their people were returned to the Emperor through the return of the domains and people to the Emperor. In 1871, the feudal domains were abolished through the abolition of the feudal domains and the establishment of prefectures, establishing a system of direct rule by the central government. Aiming to create a unified, modern nation, the new government implemented a land tax reform in 1873, establishing a land tax system and stabilizing national finances. It also promoted a policy of industrial development, promoting the nation's wealth and military strength through the development of industry through railway construction and factory establishment.

 

Diplomacy and Political Changes

The new Meiji government pursued an aggressive foreign policy to establish its international status as a modern nation. In 1874, it dispatched troops to Taiwan (the Botansha Incident) and demonstrated its external presence through diplomatic negotiations with the Qing Dynasty. In 1873, the idea of ​​sending a mission to Korea was proposed, but was rejected due to opposition from Iwakura Tomomi and Okubo Toshimichi, leading to the resignation of Saigo Takamori and others who advocated the idea. This political upheaval, known as the Meiji 6th Year Political Crisis, caused a split within the government.

 

People's Rights Movement

Following the Seikanron Coup, samurai discontent grew throughout Japan, leading to successive rebellions, including the Saga Rebellion (1874). In 1877, the Seinan War, led by Saigo Takamori, broke out, but government forces suppressed it, bringing an end to the samurai rebellions. Around this time, demands for political participation grew among the people, and in 1874, Itagaki Taisuke and others submitted a Petition for the Establishment of a Popularly Elected Diet. This sparked the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, calling for the establishment of a national parliament, which spread nationwide.

 

Establishment of a Constitution

In response to the growing Freedom and People's Rights Movement, the government began preparations for the establishment of a national parliament. In 1881, an imperial edict establishing a national parliament was issued, promising its opening ten years later. In 1885, the cabinet system was established, with Ito Hirobumi as its first prime minister. Ito then began drafting a constitution, drawing inspiration from the German (Prussian) constitution. The Constitution of the Empire of Japan was promulgated in 1889 (Meiji 22). At the same time, the Imperial House Law was enacted, establishing the framework for a constitutional state centered on the Emperor.

 

Beginnings of Party Politics

The Imperial Diet convened for the first time in 1890. The Kuroda Kiyotaka Cabinet clearly stated its stance of "transcendentalism," stating that the government would govern in the name of the Emperor, uninfluenced by political parties. Meanwhile, the Liberal Party and the Constitutional Reform Party, both of which followed the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, were formed within the Diet, nurturing the seeds of party politics. Thus began constitutional politics, and efforts were made to reconcile the relationship between the government and political parties.

 

The Korean Problem and the Sino-Japanese War

In the late 19th century, Japan's conflict with China deepened over the Korean Peninsula. During the Imo Incident of 1882, Korean veterans rebelled and attacked the Japanese embassy. Japan cooperated with the Qing to suppress the rebellion, but this ultimately strengthened Qing influence in Korea. During the Gapsin Coup of 1884, the Enlightened Party (independence party) attempted a coup d'état with Japanese support, but it failed due to Qing military intervention. Meanwhile, the Donghak Peasant Movement in Korea in 1894 led to the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War, with both Japanese and Qing troops dispatching forces.

 

The First Sino-Japanese War and its Outcome

The First Sino-Japanese War demonstrated the superiority of Japan's modern military power, resulting in a rapid victory for Japan. In 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, in which Qing recognized Korea's independence, ceded the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan, and the Penghu Islands to Japan, and paid reparations. However, Russia, Germany, and France recommended the return of the Liaodong Peninsula (the Triple Intervention), and Japan agreed. This humiliation created strong anti-Russian sentiment among the people and became a factor in encouraging Japan to expand its military.

 

The Boxer Rebellion and the Advance of the Great Powers

In 1900, the Boxer Uprising in China besieged foreign legations in Beijing. Japan dispatched troops alongside the great powers, playing a major role in suppressing the Boxers and Qing forces. Japan’s rapid and large-scale military response earned international recognition. At the same time, however, Russia expanded its presence in Manchuria and refused to withdraw, making conflict with Japan inevitable.

 

The Russo-Japanese War and the Treaty of Portsmouth

In 1904, tensions over Korea and Manchuria erupted into the Russo-Japanese War. Japan secured victories in battles such as the Siege of Port Arthur and the Battle of Tsushima, gaining the upper hand. Yet the disparity in national strength made a prolonged war unsustainable. In 1905, with U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt mediating, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed. Japan gained recognition of its dominance over Korea, the leasehold rights to Port Arthur and Dalian, control of the South Manchurian Railway, and the southern half of Sakhalin. However, no indemnity was awarded, leading to public dissatisfaction and mass protests such as the Hibiya Riots.

 

Timeline of Meiji Period

1868 AD	Beginning of the Boshin War; Peaceful surrender of Edo Castle; Charter Oath of Five Articles; Edo renamed Tokyo; Change of era name to Meiji
1869 AD	End of the Boshin War; Return of domains and registers to the Emperor (hanseki hōkan); Relocation of the capital to Tokyo; National unification under the new government
1871 AD	Abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures (haihan-chiken); New Currency Ordinance; Dispatch of the Iwakura Mission; Establishment of the postal system; Treaty of Amity with Qing China signed
1872 AD	Proclamation of the Education System Order (Gakusei); Opening of the railway between Shimbashi and Yokohama; Establishment of the Tomioka Silk Mill
1873 AD	Conscription Ordinance; Land Tax Reform; Political crisis of 1873; Return of the Iwakura Mission
1874 AD	Petition for the Establishment of a Popularly Elected Assembly submitted; Taiwan Expedition
1875 AD	Treaty of St. Petersburg (Sakhalin–Kuril Islands Exchange Treaty); Ganghwa Island Incident
1876 AD	Sword Abolishment Edict (Haitōrei); Treaty of Amity with Korea; Abolition of hereditary stipends (Chitsuroku shobun)
1877 AD	Satsuma Rebellion (last uprising of the former samurai class)
1879 AD	Disposition of the Ryukyu Domain (establishment of Okinawa Prefecture)
1881 AD	Imperial Rescript promising the opening of the National Diet; Formation of the Liberal Party (Jiyūtō)
1882 AD	Formation of the Constitutional Reform Party (Rikken Kaishintō)
1885 AD	Establishment of the Cabinet system (first Prime Minister: Itō Hirobumi)
1889 AD	Promulgation of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan (Meiji Constitution); Enactment of the Imperial House Law
1890 AD	First general election for the House of Representatives; Opening of the First Imperial Diet; Promulgation of the Imperial Rescript on Education
1894 AD	Signing of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation; Outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War
1895 AD	Treaty of Shimonoseki (end of the First Sino-Japanese War)
1897 AD	Commencement of operations at the Yawata Steel Works
1899 AD	Enforcement of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (revision of unequal treaties)
1901 AD	Ashio Copper Mine Pollution Incident becomes a major social issue
1902 AD	Conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance
1904 AD	Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War
1905 AD	End of the Russo-Japanese War; Treaty of Portsmouth; Second Anglo-Japanese Alliance
1906 AD	Establishment of the Residency-General of Korea; Acquisition of southern Sakhalin from Russia
1907 AD	Hague Secret Emissary Incident
1908 AD	Demarcation of the border between Russia and Sakhalin
1909 AD	Assassination of Itō Hirobumi
1910 AD	Annexation of Korea
1911 AD	Recovery of tariff autonomy; Third Anglo-Japanese Alliance

Facilities where you can learn about Meiji Period

Meiji-Mura Museum (Inuyama City, Aichi Prefecture)
A large open-air museum that preserves and exhibits authentic buildings from the Meiji period. Visitors can experience Important Cultural Properties, industrial heritage, steam locomotives, and other tangible aspects of Meiji culture and technology. The museum offers opportunities to experience daily life and institutions of the Meiji era and to gain a comprehensive understanding of the process of modernization.
https://www.meijimura.com/

Tokyo National Museum (Ueno Park, Taito Ward, Tokyo)
Japan’s oldest and largest museum, featuring art and crafts from the Meiji period onward, materials related to expositions, and exhibits on modernization. Special exhibitions showcase Meiji-era paintings, sculptures, crafts, and works exhibited at the Vienna World’s Fair, allowing visitors to grasp the cultural transformations of modern Japan.
https://www.tnm.jp/

Bakumatsu-Meiji Restoration Museum – Ryozen History Museum (Kyoto City)
A museum specializing in the transitional period from the late Edo period to the Meiji Restoration. Through valuable materials related to figures such as the Shinsengumi and Sakamoto Ryōma, as well as reconstructed dioramas of key incidents, visitors can vividly experience the atmosphere of the Meiji Restoration.
https://www.ryozen-museum.or.jp/

National Museum of Japanese History (Sakura City, Chiba Prefecture)
A comprehensive museum presenting Japan’s history and folk culture, with extensive collections on Meiji society, industry, and modernization. The museum also hosts special exhibitions and hands-on events, making it a learning place for both children and adults.
https://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/

Meiji University Museum (Chiyoda Ward, Tokyo)
Exhibits focus on law, modernization, daily life, and culture during the Meiji period. Open to both students and the general public, the museum provides resources and displays that illustrate the transformations of modern Japanese industry and society.
https://www.meiji.ac.jp/museum/

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